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将外语单词的语音和字形联系的识记，最适宜于用早期学习研究中的 ______ 范型来解释。 ( )
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外语单词语音和字型联系的识记最适宜与用早期学习研究中的范型来解释
系列学习
配对联想学习
S---R学习
自由回忆学习
通常最适宜于平流雾形成的风力条件是2~4级
通常最适宜于平流雾形成的风力条件是多少级
调查法最适宜于
探索性研究
描述性研究
因果分析
回归分析
TBM法的几种不同施工机械类型中全断而掘进机的主要优点是
适宜于打长洞
适宜于开挖软岩
适宜于开挖竖井或斜井
适宜于围岩是软弱破碎带情况
最适宜于进行快速渗滤土地处理的土壤是粘土亚粘土
用蜡封法测定密度最适宜于的土
砂土
易碎土
形状不规则及坚硬
细粒土
身体或心理的某一方面机能和能力最适宜于形成的时期称为
观察法和深度小组访问法最适宜于探索性研究
铸造毛坯最适宜于制造承受强烈冲击载荷作用的零件
外语单词语音和字形联系的识记最适宜于用早期学习研究中的范型来解释
系列学习
配对联想学习
S—R学习
自由回忆学习
最适宜于裸根挖掘移栽的是树种
根据骨骼皮肤皮下结缔组织肌肉和内脏的发育情况把动物体质分为以下五种混合类型细致紧凑型最适宜于专门化的
什么抗凝剂最适宜于血液常规检验试简述其原理
一般来说调查法最适宜于
探索性研究
描述性研究
实地调查
因果关系研究
是将一字形或L形踏步板直接搁置于两端墙上这种楼梯最适宜于直跑式楼梯
墙承式楼梯
梁承式楼梯
悬挑式楼梯
梁板式楼梯
PLC的优点是机电技术工人和技术人员的学习和使用
很难适宜于
不适宜于
适宜于
TBM法的几种不同施工机械类型中全断面掘进机的主要优点是
适宜于打长洞
适宜于开挖软岩
适宜于开挖竖井或斜井
适宜于围岩是软弱破碎带情况
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Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.2
AstudybyscientistsinFinlandhasfoundthatmobilephoneradiationcancausechangesinhumancellsthatmightaffectthebraintheleaderoftheresearchteamsaid. ButDariusLeszczynskiwhoheadedthe2-yearstudyandwillpresentfindingsnextweekataconferenceinQuebecsaidmoreresearchwasneededtodeterminetheseriousnessofthechangesandtheirimpactonthebrainorthebody. ThestudyatFinland’sRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthorityfoundthatexposuretoradiationfrommobilephonescancauseincreasedactivityinhundredsofproteinsinhumancellsgrowninalaboratoryhesaid. "Weknowthatthereissomebiologicalresponse.Wecandetectitwithourverysensitiveapproachesbutwedonotknowwhetheritcanhaveanyphysiologicaleffectsonthehumanbrainorhumanbody"Leszczynskisaid. NonethelessthestudytheinitialfindingsofwhichwerepublishedlastmonthinthescientificjournalDifferentiationraisesnewquestionsaboutwhethermobilephoneradiationcanweaker/thebrain’sprotectiveshieldagainstharmfulsubstances. Thestudyfocusedonchangesincellsthatlinebloodvesselsandonwhethersuchchangescouldweakenthefunctioningoftheblood-brainbarrierwhichpreventspotentiallyharmfulsubstancesfromenteringthebrainfromthebloodstreamLeszczynskisaid. Thestudyfoundthataproteincalledhsp27linkedtothefunctioningofthebloodbrainbarriershowedincreasedactivityduetoirradiationandpointedtoapossibilitythatsuchactivitycouldmaketheshieldmorepermeablehesaid. "Increasedproteinactivitymightcausecellstoshrink--notthebloodvesselsbutthecellsthemselves—andthentinygapscouldappearbetweenthosecellsthroughwhichsomemoleculescouldpass."hesaid. LeszczynskideclinedtospeculateonwhatkindofhealthrisksthatcouldposebutsaidaFrenchstudyindicatedthatheadachefatigueandsleepdisorderscouldresult. "Thesearenotlife-threateningproblemsbutcancausealotofdiscomfort"hesaidaddingthataSwedishgrouphadalsosuggestedapossiblelinkwithAlzheimer’sdisease. "WherethetruthisIdonotknow"hesaid. Leszczynskisaidthathehiswifeandchildrenusemobilephonesandhesaidthathedidnotthinkhisstudysuggestedanyneedfornewrestrictionsonmobilephoneuse. Accordingtothepassagewhatwouldbethefutureoftheuseofmobilephone
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." ItcouldbeinferredthatthewriterthinksthatincomparisonwiththemovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblesspeoplefromEuropetheoverseasslavetradewas
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothearticlewhatistheeffectofreceivinglargeamountsofwritteninformation
AstudybyscientistsinFinlandhasfoundthatmobilephoneradiationcancausechangesinhumancellsthatmightaffectthebraintheleaderoftheresearchteamsaid. ButDariusLeszczynskiwhoheadedthe2-yearstudyandwillpresentfindingsnextweekataconferenceinQuebecsaidmoreresearchwasneededtodeterminetheseriousnessofthechangesandtheirimpactonthebrainorthebody. ThestudyatFinland’sRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthorityfoundthatexposuretoradiationfrommobilephonescancauseincreasedactivityinhundredsofproteinsinhumancellsgrowninalaboratoryhesaid. "Weknowthatthereissomebiologicalresponse.Wecandetectitwithourverysensitiveapproachesbutwedonotknowwhetheritcanhaveanyphysiologicaleffectsonthehumanbrainorhumanbody"Leszczynskisaid. NonethelessthestudytheinitialfindingsofwhichwerepublishedlastmonthinthescientificjournalDifferentiationraisesnewquestionsaboutwhethermobilephoneradiationcanweaker/thebrain’sprotectiveshieldagainstharmfulsubstances. Thestudyfocusedonchangesincellsthatlinebloodvesselsandonwhethersuchchangescouldweakenthefunctioningoftheblood-brainbarrierwhichpreventspotentiallyharmfulsubstancesfromenteringthebrainfromthebloodstreamLeszczynskisaid. Thestudyfoundthataproteincalledhsp27linkedtothefunctioningofthebloodbrainbarriershowedincreasedactivityduetoirradiationandpointedtoapossibilitythatsuchactivitycouldmaketheshieldmorepermeablehesaid. "Increasedproteinactivitymightcausecellstoshrink--notthebloodvesselsbutthecellsthemselves—andthentinygapscouldappearbetweenthosecellsthroughwhichsomemoleculescouldpass."hesaid. LeszczynskideclinedtospeculateonwhatkindofhealthrisksthatcouldposebutsaidaFrenchstudyindicatedthatheadachefatigueandsleepdisorderscouldresult. "Thesearenotlife-threateningproblemsbutcancausealotofdiscomfort"hesaidaddingthataSwedishgrouphadalsosuggestedapossiblelinkwithAlzheimer’sdisease. "WherethetruthisIdonotknow"hesaid. Leszczynskisaidthathehiswifeandchildrenusemobilephonesandhesaidthathedidnotthinkhisstudysuggestedanyneedfornewrestrictionsonmobilephoneuse. What’stheresultoftheFrenchstudy
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.18
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.16
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 44
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Accordingtothewriterthebestwayofachievingeffectivecommunicationisto
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.8
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.14
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.12
Cultureisthesumtotalofallthetraditionscustomsbeliefandwaysoflifeofagivengroupofhumanbeings.Inthissenseeverygrouphasaculturehoweversavageundevelopedoruncivilizeditmayseemtous. Totheprofessionalanthropologistthereisnointrinsicsuperiorityofonecultureoveranotherjustastotheprofessionallinguistthereisnointrinsichierarchyamonglanguages. Peopleoncethoughtofthelanguagesofbackwardgroupsassavageundevelopedformofspeechconsistinglargelyofgruntsandgroans.Whileitispossiblethatlanguageingeneralbeganasaseriesofgruntsandgroansitisafactestablishedbythestudyof"backward"languagesthatnospokentongueanswersthatdescriptiontoday.Mostlanguagesofuncivilizedgroupsarebyourmostseverestandardsextremelycomplexdelicateandingeniouspiecesofmachineryforthetransferofideas.Theyfallbehindthewesternlanguagesnotintheirsoundpatternsorgrammaticalstructureswhichusuallyarefullyadequateforalllanguageneedsbutonlyintheirvocabularieswhichreflecttheobjectsandactivitiesknowntotheirspeakers.Eveninthisdepartmenthowevertwothingsaretohenoted:1.Alllanguagesseemtopossessthemachineryforvocabularyexpansion;eitherbyputtingtogetherwordsalreadyinexistenceorbyborrowingthemfromotherlanguagesandadaptingthemtotheirownsystem.2.Theobjectsandactivitiesrequiringnamesanddistinctionsin"backward"languageswhiledifferentfromours;areoftensurprisinglynumerousandcomplicated.Awesternlanguagedistinguishesmerelybetweentwodegreesofremoteness"this"and"that";somelanguagesoftheAmericanIndiansdistinguishbetweenwhatisclosetothespeakerorthepersonaddressedorremotefrombothoroutofsightorinthepastorinthefuture. Thisstudyoflanguageinturncastsanewlightupontheclaimoftheanthropologiststhatallculturesaretoviewedindependentlyandwithoutideasofrankorhierarchy. Judgingfromthepassagetheauthormightbe
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.4
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.6
Themajorityofpeopleaboutnineoutoftenareright-handed.1untilrecentlypeoplewhowereleft-handedwereconsidered2andoncechildrenshowedthistendencytheywereforcedtousetheirrighthands.Todayleft-handednessisgenerally3butitisstilladisadvantageinaworld4mostpeopleareright-handed.Forexamplemosttoolsandimplementsarestill5forright-handedpeople. Insports6contrastdoingthingswiththelefthandorfoot.isoftenanadvantage.Throwingkickingpunchingorbattingfromthe"7"sidemayresultinthrowing8manyopponentswhoaremoreaccustomedtodealingwiththe9ofplayerswhoareright-handed.Thisiswhyinmany10ataprofessionallevela11proportionofplayersareleft-handedthaninthepopulationasawhole. Theword"right"inmanylanguagesmeans"correct"oris12withlawfulnesswhereasthewordsassociated13"left"suchas"sinister"generallyhave14associations.Moreoveramonganumberofprimitivepeoplesthereis15closeassociationbetweendeathandthelefthand. Inthepastin16westernsocietieschildrenwereoftenforcedtousetheirrighthandsespeciallytowritewith.Insomecasesthelefthandwas17behindthechild’sbacksothatitcouldnotbeused.Ifinthefuturetheyareallowedtochoose18willcertainlybemoreleft-handersandprobably19peoplewithminorpsychologicaldisturbancesasaresultofbeingforcedtousetheir20hand. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.20
[A]Humanhistorycontainsgreatstoriesthatcanhelpusappreciatemoreaboutpastlife. [B]Thegreatachievementcanprovidemotivationforlearners. [C]Makingusmorehumanmorethananythingelseisthepurposeofstudyinghistory. [D]Learninghistorycanleadamorecolorfullife. [E]Historycantelluswhenweshouldgiveup. [F]Historycanteachusalessonfromitsmistakes. Thespeakerallegesthatstudyinghistoryisvaluableonlyinsofarasitisrelevanttoourdailylives.Ifindthisallegationtobespecious.Itwronglysuggeststhathistoryisnototherwiseinstructiveandthatitsrelevancetooureverydaylivesislimited.Tothecontrarystudyinghistoryprovidesinspirationinnumerablelessonsforlivingandusefulvalueclarificationandperspective—allofwhichhelpusdecidehowtoliveourlives. 41.______ Tobeginwithlearningaboutgreathumanachievementsofthepastprovidesinspiration.Forexampleastudentinspiredbythecourageandtenacityofhistory’sgreatexplorersmightdecideasaresulttopursueacareerinarcheologyoceanographyorastronomy.Thisdecisioncaninturnprofoundlyaffectthatstudent’severydaylife—inschoolandbeyond.Evenforstudentsnotinclinedtopursuethesesortsofcareersstudyinghistoricalexamplesofcourageinthefaceofadversitycanprovidemotivationtofacetheirownpersonalfearsinlife.Inshortlearningaboutgrandaccomplishmentsofthepastcanhelpusgetthroughtheeverydaybusinessoflivingwhateverthatbusinessmightbebyemboldeningusandliftingourspirits. 42.______ Inadditionmistakesofthepastcanteachusasasocietyhowtoavoidrepeatingthosemistakes.Forexamplehistorycanteachustheinappropriatenessofaddressingcertainsocialissuesparticularlymoralonesonasocietallevel.AttemptstolegislatemoralityinvariablyfailasaptlyillustratedbytheProhibitionexperimentintheU.S.duringthe1930s.Hopefullyasasocietywecanapplythislessonbyadoptingamoreenlightenedlegislativeapproachtowardsuchissuesasfreespeechcriminalizationofdrugusecriminaljusticeandequalrightsunderthelaw. 43.______ Studyinghumanhistorycanalsohelpusunderstandandappreciatethemoresvaluesandidealsofpastcultures.Aheightenedawarenessofculturalevolutioninturnhelpsusformulateinformedandreflectivevaluesandidealsforourselves.Basedonthesevaluesandidealsstudentscandeterminetheirauthenticlifepathaswellashowtheyshouldallottheirtimeandinteractwithothersonaday-to-daybasis. 44.______ Finallyitmightbetemptingtoimplyfromthespeaker’sallegationthatstudyinghistoryhaslittlerelevanceevenforthemundanechoresthatoccupysomuchofourtimeeachdayandthereforeisoflittlevalue.Howeverfromhistorywelearnnottotakeeverydayactivitiesandthingsforgranted.Byunderstandingthehistoryofmoneyandbankingwecantransformanotherwiseroutinetriptothebankintoanenlightenedexperienceoravisittothegrocerystoreintoanhomagetothemanyinventorsscientistsengineersandentrepreneursofthepastwhohavemadesuchconveniencepossibletoday.Andwecanfullyappreciateourfreedomtogoaboutourdaffyliveslargelyaswechooseonlybyunderstandingourpoliticalheritage.Inshortappreciatinghistorycanservetoelevateoureverydaychorestorichermoreinterestingandmoreenjoyableexperiences. 45.______ Insumthespeakerfailstorecognizethatinallouractivitiesanddecisions--fromourgrandesttoourmostrote--historycaninspireinformguideandnurture.Inthefinalanalysistostudyhistoryistogainthecapacitytobemorehuman--andIwouldbehard-pressedtoimagineaworthierend. 42
Effectivecommunicationisessentialforallorganisations.ItlinkstheactivitiesofthevariouspartsoftheorganisationandensuresthateveryoneisworkingtowardsaCommongoal.Itisalsoextremelyimportantformotivatingemployees.Staffneedtoknowhowtheyaregettingonwhattheyaredoingrightandinwhichareastheycouldimprove.Workingalonecanbeextremelydifficultanditismucheasierifsomeonetakesaninterestandprovidessupport.Employeesneedtounderstandwhytheirjobisimportantandhowitcontributestotheoverallsuccessofthefirm.Personalcommunicationshouldalsoincludetargetsetting.Peopleusuallyrespondwelltogoalsprovidedtheseareagreedbetweenthemanagerandsubordinateandnotimposed. Howeverfirmsoftenhavecommunicationsproblemsthatcanunderminetheirperformance.Inmanycasestheseproblemsoccurbecausemessagesarepassedoninaninappropriateway.Thereareofcourseseveralwaysofconveyinginformationtoothersintheorganisation.Theseincludespeakingtothemdirectlye-mailingtelephoningorsendingamemo.Themostappropriatemethoddependsonwhatexactlyitisyouarecommunicating.Forexampleanythingthatisparticularlysensitiveorconfidentialsuchasanemployee’sappraisalshouldbedoneface-to-face. Oneofthemainproblemsforseniorexecutivesisthattheydonothavethetimeorresourcesneededtocommunicateeffectively.Inlargecompaniesforexampleitisimpossibleforseniormanagerstomeetanddiscussprogresswitheachemployeeindividually.Obviouslythistaskcanbedelegatedbutatthecostofcreatingagapbetweenseniormanagementandstaff.Asaresultmanagersareoftenforcedtouseothermethodsofcommunication.Likememosornoteseveniftheyknowthesearenotnecessarilythemostsuitablemeansofpassingonmessages. Theuseoftechnologysuchase-mailmobilephonesandnetworksystemisspeedingupcommunicationimmensely.Howeverthisdoesnotmeanthatmoreinvestmentintechnologyautomaticallyprovesbeneficialsystemscanbecomeoutdatedoremployeesmaylackappropriatetraining.Therearemanycommunicationstoolsnowavailablebutafirmcannotaffordallofthem.Evenifitcoulditdoesnotactuallyneedthemall.Thepotentialgainsmustbeweighedupagainstthecostsandfirmsshouldrealisethatmorecommunicationdoesnotnecessarilymeanbettercommunication. Asthenumberofpeopleinvolvedinanorganisationincreasetheuseofwrittencommunicationrisesevenfaster.Insteadofaquickconversationtosortsomethingoutnumerousmessagescanbepassedbackwardsandforwards.Thiscanleadtoatremendousamountofpaperworkandisoftenlesseffectivethanfacetofacecommunication.Whenyouareactuallytalkingtosomeoneyoucandiscussthingsuntilyouarehappytheyhaveunderstoodandfeedbackisimmediate.Withwrittenmessageshoweveryouareneverquitesurehowitwillbereceived.Whatyouthinkyouhavesaidandwhattheotherpersonthinksyouhavesaidcanbeverydifferent. Theamountofwritteninformationgeneratedinlargeorganisationstodaycanleadtocommunicationoverload.Somuchinformationisgatheredthatitgetsinthe-wayofmakingdecisions.Takealookattheaveragemanager’sdeskandyouwillseetheproblem—itisoftencoveredinlettersreportsandmemos.Thisoverloadcanleadtoinefficiencies.Forexamplemanagersmaynotbeabletofindtheinformationtheywantwhentheyneedit.Communicationisalsobecomingmoredifficultwiththechangesoccurringinemploymentpatterns.Withmorepeopleworkingpart-timeandworkingfromhomemanagingcommunicationisbecomingincreasinglycomplex. Whatadviceisgivenaboutthecommunicationtoolsmadeavailablebytechnology
Cultureisthesumtotalofallthetraditionscustomsbeliefandwaysoflifeofagivengroupofhumanbeings.Inthissenseeverygrouphasaculturehoweversavageundevelopedoruncivilizeditmayseemtous. Totheprofessionalanthropologistthereisnointrinsicsuperiorityofonecultureoveranotherjustastotheprofessionallinguistthereisnointrinsichierarchyamonglanguages. Peopleoncethoughtofthelanguagesofbackwardgroupsassavageundevelopedformofspeechconsistinglargelyofgruntsandgroans.Whileitispossiblethatlanguageingeneralbeganasaseriesofgruntsandgroansitisafactestablishedbythestudyof"backward"languagesthatnospokentongueanswersthatdescriptiontoday.Mostlanguagesofuncivilizedgroupsarebyourmostseverestandardsextremelycomplexdelicateandingeniouspiecesofmachineryforthetransferofideas.Theyfallbehindthewesternlanguagesnotintheirsoundpatternsorgrammaticalstructureswhichusuallyarefullyadequateforalllanguageneedsbutonlyintheirvocabularieswhichreflecttheobjectsandactivitiesknowntotheirspeakers.Eveninthisdepartmenthowevertwothingsaretohenoted:1.Alllanguagesseemtopossessthemachineryforvocabularyexpansion;eitherbyputtingtogetherwordsalreadyinexistenceorbyborrowingthemfromotherlanguagesandadaptingthemtotheirownsystem.2.Theobjectsandactivitiesrequiringnamesanddistinctionsin"backward"languageswhiledifferentfromours;areoftensurprisinglynumerousandcomplicated.Awesternlanguagedistinguishesmerelybetweentwodegreesofremoteness"this"and"that";somelanguagesoftheAmericanIndiansdistinguishbetweenwhatisclosetothespeakerorthepersonaddressedorremotefrombothoroutofsightorinthepastorinthefuture. Thisstudyoflanguageinturncastsanewlightupontheclaimoftheanthropologiststhatallculturesaretoviewedindependentlyandwithoutideasofrankorhierarchy. TheexampleofAmericanIndianlanguagesinthepassageistoillustratethat
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." MaceodecidednottoshoottheSpanishCubanbecause
Researchersinvestigatingbrainsizeandmentalabilitysaytheirworkoffersevidencethateducationprotectsthemindfromthebrain’sphysicaldeterioration. 46isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.Interestinglyinastudyofelderlymenandwomenthosewhohadmoreeducationactuallyhadmorebrainshrinkage. "Thatmayseemlikebadnews"saidstudyauthorDr.EdwardCoffeyaprofessorofpsychiatryandofneurologyatHenryFordHealthSysteminDetroit. 47Howeverheexplainedthefindingsuggeststhateducationallowspeopletowithstandmorebraintissuelossbeforetheirmentalfunctioningbeginstobreakdown.. ThestudypublishedintheJulyissueofNeurologyisthefirsttoprovidebiologicalevidencetosupportaconceptcalledthe"reserve"hypothesisaccordingtotheresearchers.Inrecentyearsinvestigatorshavedevelopedtheideathatpeoplewhoaremoreeducatedhavegreatercognitivereservestodrawuponasthebrainages;inessencetheyhavemorebraintissuetospare. 48Examiningbrainscansof320healthymenandwomenaged66to90researchersfoundthatforeachyearofeducationthesubjectshadtherewasgreatershrinkageoftheouterlayerofthebrainknownasthecortex.Yetontestsofcognitionandmemoryallparticipantsscoredintherangeindicatingnormal. "Everyonehassomedegreeofbrainshrinkage"Coffeysaid."Peopleloseonaverage2.5percentperdecadestartinginadulthood." Thereishowevera"remarkablerange"ofshrinkageamongpeoplewhoshownosignsofmentaldeclineCoffeynoted.Overallhealthhesaidaccountsforsomedifferencesinbrainsize.Alcoholordruguseaswellasmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetesandhighbloodpressurecontributetobraintissuelossthroughoutadulthood. IntheabsenceofsuchmedicalconditionsCoffeysaideducationlevelhelpsexplaintherangeofbrainshrinkageexhibitedamongthementally-fitelderly.Themore-educatedcanwithstandgreaterloss. 49Coffeyandcolleaguesgaugedshrinkageofthecortexbymeasuringthecerebrospinalfluidsurroundingthebrain.Thegreatertheamountoffluidthegreaterthecorticalshrinkage. Controllingforthehealthfactorsthatcontributetobraininjurytheresearchersfoundthateducationwasrelatedtotheseverityofbrainshrinkage.Foreachyearofeducationfromfirstgradeonsubjectshadanaverageof1.77millilitersmorecerebrospinalfluidaroundthebrain.Justhoweducationmightaffectbraincellsisunknown. 50Intheirreporttheresearchersspeculatedthatinpeoplewithmoreeducationcertainbrainstructuresdeeperthanthecortexmaystayintacttocompensateforcorticalshrinkage. isknownthatthebrainshrinksasthebodyagesbuttheeffectsonmentalabilityaredifferentfrompersontoperson.
By1800abouthalfthepopulationofBrazilhadcomefromAfrica.SohadabouthalfthepopulationofVenezuela.SohadasmallerbutstilllargepartofallthepopulationofTrans-AtlanticrepublicswhetherinNorthCentralorSouthAfricaorintheCaribbeanislands.ItwasthesemenandwomenofAfricandescentconqueredthewildernessoftheAmericasclearingandworkingincountlessfarmsandplantationsfoundingandopeninginnumerableminesofironorpreciousmetals.HarshandpainfulasitwastheoverseasslavetradelikethenotmuchlesspainfulmovementofmillionsofhungryandjoblessmenandwomenfromEuropelaidthefoundationsofAmericanrepublics.TheseAfricansbeyondtheseashavetheirplaceinthestoryofAfricathestoryofWestAfricaforwhattheyattemptedandachievedwasalsoareflectionofthestrongandindependentcivilizationfromwhichtheycame.ConsiderforexampletheheroicandsuccessfulstruggleforindependenceconductedbytheslavesoftheCaribbeanlandofSt.Domingue.In1789atthemomentoftheFrenchRevolutionthisFrenchcolonyintheCaribbeanwasprobablythewealthiestcolonyintheworld.ItstensofthousandsofAfricanslave-workersproducedenormousquantitiesofsugarwholeEuropeancommunitieslivedofftheprofits. WhennewsoftheRevolutioninFrancereachedSt.Dominguetheseslavesclaimedtheirshareinitsidealsandbenefits.Theydemandedtheirfreedom.Whendeniedthistheyroseinrevoltagainsttheirmasters.InyearsofhardfightingagainstlargearmiessentbyFranceandafterwardsagainstlargearmiessentbyBritainthesemenofSt.DominguewontheirfreedomandfoundedtheRepublicofHaiti.Yetmorethanhalfthesesoldiersoffreedomhadmadethe"middlepassage"acrosstheAtlantic.MorethanhalfinotherwordshadbeenborninAfricahadspenttheirchildhoodinAfricaandhadlearnedinAfricatheirrespectforfreedom;whilenearlyalltherestwerethechildrenofparentsorgrandparentsborninAfrica.AndtheywereledbyAfricans:bymenofgeniusandcouragesuchasBoukmantheunforgettableToussaintLouvertureandDessalines. RaisedbyToussaintandhisAfricansthebanneroffreedomacrosstheAtlanticwascarriedfrompeopletopeople.Manythrewofftheirbondage.LargenumbersofmenofAfricanoriginfoughtinthearmiesthatmadetheUnitedStateswhattheyaretoday.ItwasageneralofAfricandescentAntonioMaceowholedthemilitarystruggleforCubanindependenceagainstSpainin1868. LikeothermenofvisionMaceohadnotimeforracismforthefalseideathatoneraceofmenisbetterorworsethananyother.SomeofthewhitesofCubadisagreedwithhim.TheywereSpanishsettlerswhothoughtthatwhitewasgoingtobebetterthanblackeveninanindependentCuba. OnedayMaceowasapproachedbyaSpanishCubanwhosuggestedthattheregimentsofindependencearmyshouldbedividedintowhitesandnon-whites.MaceomadehimareplywhichbecamefamousinCuba."Ifyouwerenotwhite"Maceosaidtothisman"Iwouldhaveyoushotonthespot.ButIdonotwishtobeaccusedofbeingracialistasyouareandsoIletyougobutwiththewarningthatIshallnotbesopatientanothertime.Therevolutionhasnocolor." TotheauthortheimportantthingabouttherevolutionofSt.Domingueisthat
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