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The temperature of the Sun is over 5000 degrees Fahrenheit at the surface, but it rises to perhap...
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NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 13
Itiswidelybelievedthatournever-endingquestformaterialgoodsispartofthebasiccharacterofhumanbeings.Accordingtothepopularbeliefwemaynotlikeitbutthere’slittlewecandoaboutit.Despiteitspopularitythisviewofhumannatureiswrong.Whilehumanbeingsmayhaveabasicdesiretostrivetowardssomethingthereisnothinginevitableaboutmaterialgoods.Therearenumerousexamplesofsocietiesinwhichthingshaveplayedahighlyrestrictedrule.InmedievalEuropetheacquisitionofgoodswasrelativelyunimportant.Thecommonpeoplewhoselivesweresurelypoorbymodernstandardsshowedstrongpreferencesforleisureratherthanmoney.Inthenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-centuryUnitedStatesthereisalsoconsiderableevidencethatmanyworkingpeoplealsoexhibitedarestrictedappetiteformaterialgoods.Materialismisnotabasictraitofhumannaturebutaspecificproductofcapitalism.Withthedevelopmentofthemarketsystemmaterialismspilledoverforthefirsttimebeyondthecirclesoftherich.Thegrowthofthemiddleclasscreatedalargegroupofpotentialbuyersandthepossibilitythatmassculturecouldbeorientedaroundmaterialgoods.Thisprocesscanbeseennotonlyinhistoricalexperiencesbutisnowgoingoninsomepartsofthedevelopingworldwherethegrowthofalargemiddleclasshascontributedtoextensivematerialismandthebreakdownoftraditionalvalues.IntheUnitedStatestheturningpointwasthe1920s—thepointatwhichthepsychologyofshortagegavewaytothepsychologyofabundance.Thiswasacrucialperiodforthedevelopmentofmodernmaterialism.Economyanddisciplinewereout;wasteandexcesswerein.Materialismflourished—bothasasocialideologyandintermsofhighratesofrealspending.Inthemidstofallthisbuyingwecandetecttheoriginsofmodernconsumerdiscontent.ThiswasthedecadeduringwhichtheAmericandreamorwhatwasthencalledtheAmericanstandardoflivingcapturedthenation’simagination.Butitwasalwayssomethingofanillusion.Americanscomplainedaboutitemstheycouldnotafford—despitethefactthatinthe1920smostfamilieshadtelephonesvirtuallyallhadpurchasedlifeinsurancetwo-thirdsownedtheirownhomesandtookvacationsandoverhalfhadmotorcars.ThediscontentexpressedbymanyAmericanswaspromoted—andtoacertainextentevencreated—bymanufacturers.Theexplosionofconsumercreditmadethetaskeasierasautomobilesradioselectricrefrigeratorswashingmachines—evenjewelryandforeigntravel—couldbepaidforininstallments.Bytheendofthe1920s60percentofcarsradiosandfurniturewerebeingpurchasedthisway.Theabilitytobuywithoutactuallyhavingmoneyhelpedencourageaclimateofinstantsatisfactionexpandingexpectationsandultimatelymaterialism.Intheauthor’sviewtheAmericandreamwas______.
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 7
[A]DifferentbehaviorsoftheInternetaddicts [B]ThefindingofaresearchontheInternetaddicts [C]TheInternetaddictionmaydestroyafamily [D]Theestablishmentofanewserviceforwebaddicts [E]TwoexamplesofharmoftheInternetaddiction [F]TheInternetaddictionmaycausemanyproblems It’stheequivalentofinvitingsexaddictstoabrothelorholdinganAlcoholicsAnonymousAAmeetingatthepub.Internetaddictstiredoftheirsquare-eyedkeyboardtappingwaysneedlooknofurtherthantheWebforcounseling. 41.__________. Thereisnowanonlinecounsellingserviceatwww.relateorg.nzforInternetobsessives.JustemailthedetailsofyourInternet-inducedcrisisandhelpcomesdirecttoyourinbox.Thenewbreedofcyber-therapistsseenothingstrangeaboutofferinghelpthroughtheverymediumthatisswallowingtheirclients’freetimeandsplittingtheirmarriages. 42.__________. ThoughsomemayregardInternetaddictionasanotherdubiousailmentdreameduptokeeptherapistsinworkRelationshipServicessaystheproblemisreal.TherapistRobinPaulsaystheretendtobetwoscenarios.Somepeoplemeetthroughchatroomsandfallinlove.It’slikehavinganaffairthentheymeetandit’slikeawhirlwindhoneymoon.It’sdevastatingforthepersonleftbehindandquiteoftenithasnorealfoundation.ThesecondscenarioisthatapersonstartsspendingmoreandmoretimeontheNet.TheymaynotmeetSomeoneelsebuttheydon’tspendanytimewiththeirpartnerandofcoursetherelationshipsuffers. 43.__________. SuchstoriesmayappeartobealmosturbanlegendssoashamedareInternetaddictsandtheirpartners.Arecentsurveyof17251Internetusersfoundnearly6percenthadsomesortofaddictiontothemedium.Theyrevealedthattheironlinehabitcontributedtodisruptedmarriageschildhooddelinquencycrimeandover-spending.Tapintoonlineaddictionsitesandyou’llfindmessagessuchas:"HellomynameisBobandI’maWebaholic." 44.__________. WitnesstheplightofOhiowomanKelliMichettiwholiterallybecameacomputerhackerbecauseofherhusband’sconstantonlinechatting.Whenshecrashedameatcleaverthroughherhusband’scomputerterminalthatsolvedtheproblemalthoughnaturallyitledtodifficultieswiththepolice.OrtaketheclassicInternetaddictionstoryofIngridParkerawomanwhobecamesuchaslavetotheInternet--especiallychatrooms--thatittookoverherlife.Shemadedowithtwohours’sleepanighthadmarathonweekendcomputersessionsofupto17hoursandfellinlovewithamarriedmanintheUSstateofOregon. 45.__________. Dr.KimberlyYoungwhosetupTheCentreforOnlineAddictionwww.netaddictioncominAmericastudied396peoplewhomsheconsideredwerepsychologicallydependentontheNet.Theyrangedinagefrom14to70andspentanaverageof38.5hoursaweekontheWeb.HerstudybackedbyfurtherresearchinBritainfoundthatwomenweremorelikelytobecomeaddicts.Sowhiletheoldstereotypicaladdictwasayoungmanwhospenthoursplayinggamesdownloadingsoftwareorreadingmessagesonnewsgroupsthenewimageisofayoungwomanwhofrittersawayhourse-mailingfriends.buyingbooksandCDsonlinetalkinginchatroomsandlookingforinformationfornextyear’sholiday. "IguessIwasatypicalexampleofsomeonehookedontheInternet"saysParkerwhonowspendsjustanhouradayonline."Idon’tthinkanyonewhoismarriedorinasoundrelationshipshouldreallybespendinghourstalkingtosomeoneelseandignoringtheirnearestanddearest."WhileParkerprovidedherowntherapybyputtingherexperiencesdownonpapersherecommendsotherstakeuptheonlinecounsellingofferorlogofffromtheWorldwideWebgradually. 41
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 15
ThebiggestdangerfacingtheglobalairlineindustryisnottheeffectsofterrorismwarSARSandeconomicdownturn.ItisthattheseblowswhichhavehelpedgroundthreenationalflagcarriersandforcetwoAmericanairlinesintobankruptcywilldivertattentionfromtheinherentweaknessesofaviationwhichtheyhaveexacerbated.46AsinthecrisisthatattendedthefirstGulfWarmanyairlineshopethattrafficwillsoonbouncebackandafewcatastrophicyearswillbefollowedbyfullerplaneshappierpassengersandareturntoprofitability.Yettheindustry’sproblemsaredeeper--andolder--thanthetraumaofthepasttwoyearsimplies. AsthecentenaryofthefirstpoweredflightapproachesinDecembertheindustryitlaunchedisstillremarkablyprimitive.47ThecarindustrycreatednotlongaftertheWrightBrothersmadehistoryisnowaglobalindustrydominatedbyadozenfirmsatleasthalfofwhichmakegoodprofits.Yetcommercialaviationconsistsof267internationalcarriersandanother500-plusdomesticones.48Theworld’sbiggestcarrierAmericanAirlineshasbarely7%oftheglobalmarketwhereastheworld’sbiggestcarmakerGeneralMotorshaswithitsassociatedfirmsaboutaquarteroftheworld’sautomobilemarket. Aviationhasbeenincompletelyderegulatedandinonlytwomarkets:AmericaandEurope.Everywhereelsedealsbetweengovernmentsdictatewhofliesunderwhatrules.49Theseaimtopreservestate-ownednationalflag-carriersrunforprestigeratherthanprofitandnumerousrestrictionsonforeignownershiphindercross-borderairlinemergers. InAmericathebignetworkcarriersfacebarrierstoexitwhichhavekepttheirroutenetworkstoolarge.TradeunionsresistingjobcutsandCongressmenopposingrouteclosuresintheirterritoryconspiretoblockchange.InEuropeliberalizationislimitedbybilateraldealsthatpreventforinstanceBritishAirwaysBAflyingtoAmericafromFrankfurtorParis.TousethecarindustryanalogyitisasifonlyRenaultswereallowedtodriveonFrenchmotorways. 50Inairlinestheoptimistsarethosewhothinkthatthingsarenowsobadthattheindustryhasnooptionbuttoevolve.FrederickReidpresidentofDeltaAirLinessaidthateventssincetheSeptember11thattacksaretheequivalentofameteorstrikechangingtheclimateandleadingtoa"compressedevolutionarycycle".Sohowlookingonthebrightsidemighttheindustrylookafterfiveyearsofaccelerateddevelopment Theseaimtopreservestate-ownednationalflag-carriersrunforprestigeratherthanprofitandnumerousrestrictionsonforeignownershiphindercross-borderairlinemergers
A.Recentarchaeologicalresearchhasfocusedonaphenomenonbarelynoticedbefore:extensivepatchesofrichblacksoilfoundalongthebanksandonterracesaboveallmajorriversintheAmazon.Somecoveranareaofmanyacresandareupto6feetdeep.Theyarethoughttohaveformedovermanycenturiesastheaccumulatedproductoforganicremainsleftbynativesettlements.ThesesoilsareusuallyfilledwithfragmentsofbustedceramicsandarenowbeingstudiedforcluestotheriseoftropicalforestcivilizationsintheAmazonBasin.Localfarmersregardtheblacksoilsasa"giftfromthepast"becausetheyarenaturallyfertileandhavetheabilitytosupportawiderangeofcrops. B.Secondlythereisatrulyimpressivediversityoflanguageswithseveralhundreddistincttonguesanddialects.ThisverbaldiversitymusthaveevolvedoverthousandsofyearsandimpliesanoccupationoftheAmazonbasinforatleast14000yearsafiguresupportedbyarchaeologicalevidence.TherockartintheAmazonBasinmaybeasoldashumanoccupationitself.Imagesarecarvedandpaintedonexposedrocknearrapidsandwaterfallswherefishingismostproductiveandincavesandrocksheltersclosetoarchaeologicalsites. C.Twofactorshavebeeninstrumentalinliftingtheveilofmisunderstanding.Firstisasurprisinglydiverserangeofceramicstyles.Recentresearchseemstoconfirmthatacreativeexplosionofstylesoccurredabout2000yearsago.ArchaeologicaldigsinthehighestreachesoftheUpperAmazonhavedemonstratedtheexistenceofawidespreadstyleofpaintinglargewatertightjarsinboldblackredandcreamdesigns.ThissamestylehasbeenfoundonanisleatthemouthoftheAmazonandappearstohaveitsoriginswheretheAmazonmeetstheoceanlaterspreadingacrossmuchoftheUpperAmazon.Thestyletranscendslocalandregionalculturesandpointstoconsiderableintercoursebetweensocietiesalongthevastrivernetwork. D.ThenativepeoplesoftheAmazoncannolongerbeseenasisolatedcommunitiesinthedepthsoftheforestordispersedalongrivers.Westillhavemuchtolearnabouttheirsocietiesbuttherainforestshouldnolongerbeseenasanuntouched"paradise". E.AmongthemostexcitingdiscoveriesarefuneraljarsdatingtoA.D.1400-1700foundincavesandrocksheltersnearthemouthoftheAmazon.Thebonesofmenwomenandchildrenwerepreservedinindividuallydedicatedvessels.Itseemsthatthesiteswerevisitedregularlyovertheyearsandnewjarsaddedasfamilymembersexpired.Theseburialsreflectthefamilytiesofancientsettlementsandtheirnurturingoflinksbetweenthelivingandthedead. F.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. G.ThefutureoftheAmazonBasinisnowasubjectoffiercedebate.Knowledgeaboutthepasthasavitalroletoplayinplanninganddecisionmakingforthefuture.Archaeologypointstosuccessfulmethodsforadaptingtotheforestgroundedinpracticalexpertiseandempiricalknowledgeofthelimitationsandpossibilitiesofthisenvironment.Thesetechniquesforwisemanagementarebecomingamatterofglobalconcern. Order: 43
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 3
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 9
Directions:JackBlackmanagoodfriendofyoursisleavingforNewYork.WritealettertoTomafriendinNewYorktointroduceJacktohim.Writeyourletterwithnolessthan100words.WriteitneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter;useLiMinginstead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.10points
Text4 ThehistorianFrederickJ.Turnerwroteinthe1890’sthattheagrariandiscontentthathadbeendevelopingsteadilyintheUnitedStatessinceabout1870hadbeenspeededbytheclosingoftheinternalfrontier--thatisthedepletionofavailablenewlandneededforfurtherexpansionoftheAmericanfarmingsystem.NotonlywasTurner’sthesisinfluentialatthetimeitwaslateradoptedandelaboratedbyotherscholarssuchasJohnD.HicksinThepopulistRevolt1931.ActuallyhowevernewlandsweretakenupforfarmingintheUnitedStatesthroughoutandbeyondthenineteenthcentury.Inthe1890’swhenagrariandiscontenthadbecomemostacute1100000newfarmsweresettledwhichwas500000morethanhadbeensettledduringthepreviousdecade.After1890underthetermsoftheHomesteadActanditssuccessorsmorenewlandwastakenupforfanningthanhadbeentakenupforthispurposeintheUnitedstatesupuntilthattime.Itistruethatahighproportionofthenewlyfannedlandwassuitableonlyforgrazinganddryfarmingbutagriculturalpracticeshadbecomesufficientlyadvancedtomakeitpossibletoincreasetheprofitabilityoffarmingbyutilizingeventheserelativelybarrenlands. Theemphasisgivenbybothscholarsandstatesmentothepresumeddisappearance’oftheAmericanfrontierhelpedtoobscurethegreatimportanceofchangesintheconditionsandconsequencesofinternationaltradethatoccurredduringthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.In1869theSuezCanalwasopenedandthefirsttranscontinentalrailroadintheUnitedStateswascompleted.Anextensivenetworkoftelegraphandtelephonecommunicationswasspun:EuropewasconnectedbysubmarinecablewiththeUnitedStatesin1866andwithSouthAmericain1874.Byabout1870improvementsinagriculturaltechnologymadepossiblethefullexploitationofareasthatweremostsuitableforextensivefarmingonamechanizedbasis.HugetractsoflandwerebeingsettledandfarmedinArgentinaAustraliaCanadaandintheAmericanWestandtheseareaswerejoinedwithoneanotherandwiththecountriesofEuropeintoaninterdependentmarketsystem.Asaconsequenceagrariandepressionsnolongerwerelocalornationalinscopeandtheystruckseveralnationswhoseinternalfrontiershadnotvanishedorwerenotabouttovanish.Betweentheearly1870’sandthe1890’sthemountingagrariandiscontentinAmericaparalleledthealmostuninterrupteddeclineinthepricesofAmericanagriculturalproductsonforeignmarkets.Thosestaple-growingfarmersintheUnitedStateswhoexhibitedthegreatestdiscontentwerewhohadbecomemostdependentonforeignmarketsforthesaleoftheirproducts.InsofarasAmericanshadbeendeterredfromtakingupnewlandforfarmingitwasbecausemarketconditionshadmadethisperiodaperiloustimeinwhichtodoso. Changesintheconditionsofinternationaltraderesultedinan
A.Recentarchaeologicalresearchhasfocusedonaphenomenonbarelynoticedbefore:extensivepatchesofrichblacksoilfoundalongthebanksandonterracesaboveallmajorriversintheAmazon.Somecoveranareaofmanyacresandareupto6feetdeep.Theyarethoughttohaveformedovermanycenturiesastheaccumulatedproductoforganicremainsleftbynativesettlements.ThesesoilsareusuallyfilledwithfragmentsofbustedceramicsandarenowbeingstudiedforcluestotheriseoftropicalforestcivilizationsintheAmazonBasin.Localfarmersregardtheblacksoilsasa"giftfromthepast"becausetheyarenaturallyfertileandhavetheabilitytosupportawiderangeofcrops. B.Secondlythereisatrulyimpressivediversityoflanguageswithseveralhundreddistincttonguesanddialects.ThisverbaldiversitymusthaveevolvedoverthousandsofyearsandimpliesanoccupationoftheAmazonbasinforatleast14000yearsafiguresupportedbyarchaeologicalevidence.TherockartintheAmazonBasinmaybeasoldashumanoccupationitself.Imagesarecarvedandpaintedonexposedrocknearrapidsandwaterfallswherefishingismostproductiveandincavesandrocksheltersclosetoarchaeologicalsites. C.Twofactorshavebeeninstrumentalinliftingtheveilofmisunderstanding.Firstisasurprisinglydiverserangeofceramicstyles.Recentresearchseemstoconfirmthatacreativeexplosionofstylesoccurredabout2000yearsago.ArchaeologicaldigsinthehighestreachesoftheUpperAmazonhavedemonstratedtheexistenceofawidespreadstyleofpaintinglargewatertightjarsinboldblackredandcreamdesigns.ThissamestylehasbeenfoundonanisleatthemouthoftheAmazonandappearstohaveitsoriginswheretheAmazonmeetstheoceanlaterspreadingacrossmuchoftheUpperAmazon.Thestyletranscendslocalandregionalculturesandpointstoconsiderableintercoursebetweensocietiesalongthevastrivernetwork. D.ThenativepeoplesoftheAmazoncannolongerbeseenasisolatedcommunitiesinthedepthsoftheforestordispersedalongrivers.Westillhavemuchtolearnabouttheirsocietiesbuttherainforestshouldnolongerbeseenasanuntouched"paradise". E.AmongthemostexcitingdiscoveriesarefuneraljarsdatingtoA.D.1400-1700foundincavesandrocksheltersnearthemouthoftheAmazon.Thebonesofmenwomenandchildrenwerepreservedinindividuallydedicatedvessels.Itseemsthatthesiteswerevisitedregularlyovertheyearsandnewjarsaddedasfamilymembersexpired.Theseburialsreflectthefamilytiesofancientsettlementsandtheirnurturingoflinksbetweenthelivingandthedead. F.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. G.ThefutureoftheAmazonBasinisnowasubjectoffiercedebate.Knowledgeaboutthepasthasavitalroletoplayinplanninganddecisionmakingforthefuture.Archaeologypointstosuccessfulmethodsforadaptingtotheforestgroundedinpracticalexpertiseandempiricalknowledgeofthelimitationsandpossibilitiesofthisenvironment.Thesetechniquesforwisemanagementarebecomingamatterofglobalconcern. Order: 45
Forcenturiesexplorershaveriskedtheirlivesventuringintotheunknownforreasonsofeconomicbenefitandnationalglory.Followingthelunarmissionsoftheearly1970sMarsnowloomsashumanity’snextgreatunknownland.Butwithdubiousprospectsforshort-termfinancialreturnandwithinternationalcompetitioninspacearecedingmemoryitisclearthatimperativesotherthanprofitornationalpridewillhavetocompelhumanbeingstoleavetheirtracksontheplanet’sredsurface.WithMarsthescientificbenefitsareperhapshigherthantheyhaveeverbeen.TheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedontheplanetandwhetheritpersiststothisdayhasbeenhighlightedbyaccumulatingevidencethatMarsoncehadabundantliquidwaterandbythecontroversyoversuggestionsthatfossilsofbacteriarodetoEarthonarockejectedfromMarsduringitsearlyhistory.AdefiniteansweraboutlifeonMarspastorpresentwouldgiveresearchersinvaluabledataabouttherangeofconditionsunderwhichaplanetcangeneratethecomplexchemistrythatleadstolife.TherevelationthatlifearoseindependentlyonMarsandonEarthwouldprovidethefirstconcreteclueinoneofthedeepestmysteriesinallofscience:howprevalentislifeinourgalaxyOneofthereasonswhytheideaofsendingpeopletoMarsstrikesachordinsomanypeopleisthatitisalreadypossible—theU.S.hasthemoneyandthefundamentaltechnologyneededtodoit.Moreimportantrecentdiscoveriesabouttheplanet’senvironmentinthedistantpasthavepresentedaclearandcompellingscientificincentiveforsendingpeople:tosearchforevidenceoflife.ThethesisthatliquidwaterwasoncestableonMarshasbeenstrengthenedbyaerialphotographstakenlastyearthatshowedwhatappearedtobeadrainagechannelcutdeeplybywaterflowingforhundredsifnotthousandsofyears.AthoroughhuntforanylifeonMarsthatmightbehangingon—despitethepresentdeficitofwater—wouldalsohavetobeundertakenbyhumansaccordingtosomeexperts.Suchlifewillbehiddenandprobablytiny.Findingitwillrequiresurveyingvasttractsofterritoryoneexpertexplains.Itwillrequiretheabilitytocoverlongdistancesandadapttodifferentconditions.Robotsmightbeuptothetasksometimeinthedistantfuturemakinghumanexplorersredundantheconcedes.ButrelyingonthemtosurveyMarsduringperiodicalmissionstotheplanetwouldtakeaverylongtime—decadesifnotcenturieshebelieves.AsfortheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedonMarstheauthorseemstobe______.
[A]DifferentbehaviorsoftheInternetaddicts [B]ThefindingofaresearchontheInternetaddicts [C]TheInternetaddictionmaydestroyafamily [D]Theestablishmentofanewserviceforwebaddicts [E]TwoexamplesofharmoftheInternetaddiction [F]TheInternetaddictionmaycausemanyproblems It’stheequivalentofinvitingsexaddictstoabrothelorholdinganAlcoholicsAnonymousAAmeetingatthepub.Internetaddictstiredoftheirsquare-eyedkeyboardtappingwaysneedlooknofurtherthantheWebforcounseling. 41.__________. Thereisnowanonlinecounsellingserviceatwww.relateorg.nzforInternetobsessives.JustemailthedetailsofyourInternet-inducedcrisisandhelpcomesdirecttoyourinbox.Thenewbreedofcyber-therapistsseenothingstrangeaboutofferinghelpthroughtheverymediumthatisswallowingtheirclients’freetimeandsplittingtheirmarriages. 42.__________. ThoughsomemayregardInternetaddictionasanotherdubiousailmentdreameduptokeeptherapistsinworkRelationshipServicessaystheproblemisreal.TherapistRobinPaulsaystheretendtobetwoscenarios.Somepeoplemeetthroughchatroomsandfallinlove.It’slikehavinganaffairthentheymeetandit’slikeawhirlwindhoneymoon.It’sdevastatingforthepersonleftbehindandquiteoftenithasnorealfoundation.ThesecondscenarioisthatapersonstartsspendingmoreandmoretimeontheNet.TheymaynotmeetSomeoneelsebuttheydon’tspendanytimewiththeirpartnerandofcoursetherelationshipsuffers. 43.__________. SuchstoriesmayappeartobealmosturbanlegendssoashamedareInternetaddictsandtheirpartners.Arecentsurveyof17251Internetusersfoundnearly6percenthadsomesortofaddictiontothemedium.Theyrevealedthattheironlinehabitcontributedtodisruptedmarriageschildhooddelinquencycrimeandover-spending.Tapintoonlineaddictionsitesandyou’llfindmessagessuchas:"HellomynameisBobandI’maWebaholic." 44.__________. WitnesstheplightofOhiowomanKelliMichettiwholiterallybecameacomputerhackerbecauseofherhusband’sconstantonlinechatting.Whenshecrashedameatcleaverthroughherhusband’scomputerterminalthatsolvedtheproblemalthoughnaturallyitledtodifficultieswiththepolice.OrtaketheclassicInternetaddictionstoryofIngridParkerawomanwhobecamesuchaslavetotheInternet--especiallychatrooms--thatittookoverherlife.Shemadedowithtwohours’sleepanighthadmarathonweekendcomputersessionsofupto17hoursandfellinlovewithamarriedmanintheUSstateofOregon. 45.__________. Dr.KimberlyYoungwhosetupTheCentreforOnlineAddictionwww.netaddictioncominAmericastudied396peoplewhomsheconsideredwerepsychologicallydependentontheNet.Theyrangedinagefrom14to70andspentanaverageof38.5hoursaweekontheWeb.HerstudybackedbyfurtherresearchinBritainfoundthatwomenweremorelikelytobecomeaddicts.Sowhiletheoldstereotypicaladdictwasayoungmanwhospenthoursplayinggamesdownloadingsoftwareorreadingmessagesonnewsgroupsthenewimageisofayoungwomanwhofrittersawayhourse-mailingfriends.buyingbooksandCDsonlinetalkinginchatroomsandlookingforinformationfornextyear’sholiday. "IguessIwasatypicalexampleofsomeonehookedontheInternet"saysParkerwhonowspendsjustanhouradayonline."Idon’tthinkanyonewhoismarriedorinasoundrelationshipshouldreallybespendinghourstalkingtosomeoneelseandignoringtheirnearestanddearest."WhileParkerprovidedherowntherapybyputtingherexperiencesdownonpapersherecommendsotherstakeuptheonlinecounsellingofferorlogofffromtheWorldwideWebgradually. 43
Althoughmanyfactorsaffecthumanhealthduringperiodsinspaceweightlessnessisthedominantandsinglemostimportantone.Thedirectandindirecteffectsofweightlessnessleadtoaseriesofrelatedresponses.Ultimatelythewholebodyfrombonestobrainkidneystobowelsreacts.Whenspacetravelersgraspthewalloftheirspacecraftandjerktheirbodiesbackandforththeysayitfeelsasthoughtheyarestationaryandthespacecraftismoving.Thereasonisbasedinourrelianceongravitytoperceiveoursurroundings.Thecontinuousanduniversalnatureofgravityremovesitfromourdailynoticebutourbodiesneverforget.Whetherwerealizeitornotwehaveevolvedalargenumberofsilentautomaticreactionstocopewiththeconstantstressoflivinginadownward-pullingworld.Onlywhenwedecreaseorincreasetheeffectiveforceofgravityonourbodiesdoourmindsperceiveit.Oursensesprovideaccurateinformationaboutthelocationofourcenterofmassandtherelativepositionsofourbodyparts.Ourbrainsintegratesignalsfromoureyesandearswithotherinformationfromtheorgansinourinnerearfromourmusclesandjointsandfromoursensesoftouchandpressure.Theapparatusoftheinnerearispartitionedintotwodistinctcomponents:circularfluid-filledtubesthatsensetheangleoftheheadandtwobagsfilledwithcalciumcrystalsembeddedinathickfluidwhichrespondtolinearmovement.Themovementofthecalciumcrystalssendsasignaltothebraintotellusthedirectionofgravity.Thisisnottheonlycuethebrainreceives.Nervesinthemusclesjointsandskin—particularlytheslainonthebottomofthefeet—respondtotheweightoflimbsegmentsandotherbodyparts.Removinggravitytransformsthesesignals.Theinnerearnolongerperceivesadownwardtendencywhentheheadmoves.Thelimbsnolongerhaveweightsomusclesarenolongerrequiredtocontractandrelaxintheusualwaytomaintainpostureandbringaboutmovement.Nervesthatrespondtotouchandpressureinthefeetandanklesnolongersignalthedirectionofdown.Theseandotherchangescontributetoorientationillusionssuchasafeelingthatthebodyorthespacecraftspontaneouslychangesdirection.In1961aRussianastronautreportedvividsensationsofbeingupsidedown;onespaceshuttlespecialistinastronomysaidWhenthemainenginescutoffIimmediatelyfeltasthoughwehadinverted180degrees.Suchillusionscanrecurevenaftersometimeinspace.Fromthefirsttwoparagraphswelearnthatweightlessnessiscausedby______.
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 17
Forcenturiesexplorershaveriskedtheirlivesventuringintotheunknownforreasonsofeconomicbenefitandnationalglory.Followingthelunarmissionsoftheearly1970sMarsnowloomsashumanity’snextgreatunknownland.Butwithdubiousprospectsforshort-termfinancialreturnandwithinternationalcompetitioninspacearecedingmemoryitisclearthatimperativesotherthanprofitornationalpridewillhavetocompelhumanbeingstoleavetheirtracksontheplanet’sredsurface.WithMarsthescientificbenefitsareperhapshigherthantheyhaveeverbeen.TheissueofwhetherlifeeverexistedontheplanetandwhetheritpersiststothisdayhasbeenhighlightedbyaccumulatingevidencethatMarsoncehadabundantliquidwaterandbythecontroversyoversuggestionsthatfossilsofbacteriarodetoEarthonarockejectedfromMarsduringitsearlyhistory.AdefiniteansweraboutlifeonMarspastorpresentwouldgiveresearchersinvaluabledataabouttherangeofconditionsunderwhichaplanetcangeneratethecomplexchemistrythatleadstolife.TherevelationthatlifearoseindependentlyonMarsandonEarthwouldprovidethefirstconcreteclueinoneofthedeepestmysteriesinallofscience:howprevalentislifeinourgalaxyOneofthereasonswhytheideaofsendingpeopletoMarsstrikesachordinsomanypeopleisthatitisalreadypossible—theU.S.hasthemoneyandthefundamentaltechnologyneededtodoit.Moreimportantrecentdiscoveriesabouttheplanet’senvironmentinthedistantpasthavepresentedaclearandcompellingscientificincentiveforsendingpeople:tosearchforevidenceoflife.ThethesisthatliquidwaterwasoncestableonMarshasbeenstrengthenedbyaerialphotographstakenlastyearthatshowedwhatappearedtobeadrainagechannelcutdeeplybywaterflowingforhundredsifnotthousandsofyears.AthoroughhuntforanylifeonMarsthatmightbehangingon—despitethepresentdeficitofwater—wouldalsohavetobeundertakenbyhumansaccordingtosomeexperts.Suchlifewillbehiddenandprobablytiny.Findingitwillrequiresurveyingvasttractsofterritoryoneexpertexplains.Itwillrequiretheabilitytocoverlongdistancesandadapttodifferentconditions.Robotsmightbeuptothetasksometimeinthedistantfuturemakinghumanexplorersredundantheconcedes.ButrelyingonthemtosurveyMarsduringperiodicalmissionstotheplanetwouldtakeaverylongtime—decadesifnotcenturieshebelieves.Theaerialphotographstakenlastyearindicatethat______.
Althoughmanyfactorsaffecthumanhealthduringperiodsinspaceweightlessnessisthedominantandsinglemostimportantone.Thedirectandindirecteffectsofweightlessnessleadtoaseriesofrelatedresponses.Ultimatelythewholebodyfrombonestobrainkidneystobowelsreacts.Whenspacetravelersgraspthewalloftheirspacecraftandjerktheirbodiesbackandforththeysayitfeelsasthoughtheyarestationaryandthespacecraftismoving.Thereasonisbasedinourrelianceongravitytoperceiveoursurroundings.Thecontinuousanduniversalnatureofgravityremovesitfromourdailynoticebutourbodiesneverforget.Whetherwerealizeitornotwehaveevolvedalargenumberofsilentautomaticreactionstocopewiththeconstantstressoflivinginadownward-pullingworld.Onlywhenwedecreaseorincreasetheeffectiveforceofgravityonourbodiesdoourmindsperceiveit.Oursensesprovideaccurateinformationaboutthelocationofourcenterofmassandtherelativepositionsofourbodyparts.Ourbrainsintegratesignalsfromoureyesandearswithotherinformationfromtheorgansinourinnerearfromourmusclesandjointsandfromoursensesoftouchandpressure.Theapparatusoftheinnerearispartitionedintotwodistinctcomponents:circularfluid-filledtubesthatsensetheangleoftheheadandtwobagsfilledwithcalciumcrystalsembeddedinathickfluidwhichrespondtolinearmovement.Themovementofthecalciumcrystalssendsasignaltothebraintotellusthedirectionofgravity.Thisisnottheonlycuethebrainreceives.Nervesinthemusclesjointsandskin—particularlytheslainonthebottomofthefeet—respondtotheweightoflimbsegmentsandotherbodyparts.Removinggravitytransformsthesesignals.Theinnerearnolongerperceivesadownwardtendencywhentheheadmoves.Thelimbsnolongerhaveweightsomusclesarenolongerrequiredtocontractandrelaxintheusualwaytomaintainpostureandbringaboutmovement.Nervesthatrespondtotouchandpressureinthefeetandanklesnolongersignalthedirectionofdown.Theseandotherchangescontributetoorientationillusionssuchasafeelingthatthebodyorthespacecraftspontaneouslychangesdirection.In1961aRussianastronautreportedvividsensationsofbeingupsidedown;onespaceshuttlespecialistinastronomysaidWhenthemainenginescutoffIimmediatelyfeltasthoughwehadinverted180degrees.Suchillusionscanrecurevenaftersometimeinspace.Whichofthefollowingapparatusofthebodymaybelessaffectedbyremovinggravity
ThebiggestdangerfacingtheglobalairlineindustryisnottheeffectsofterrorismwarSARSandeconomicdownturn.ItisthattheseblowswhichhavehelpedgroundthreenationalflagcarriersandforcetwoAmericanairlinesintobankruptcywilldivertattentionfromtheinherentweaknessesofaviationwhichtheyhaveexacerbated.46AsinthecrisisthatattendedthefirstGulfWarmanyairlineshopethattrafficwillsoonbouncebackandafewcatastrophicyearswillbefollowedbyfullerplaneshappierpassengersandareturntoprofitability.Yettheindustry’sproblemsaredeeper--andolder--thanthetraumaofthepasttwoyearsimplies. AsthecentenaryofthefirstpoweredflightapproachesinDecembertheindustryitlaunchedisstillremarkablyprimitive.47ThecarindustrycreatednotlongaftertheWrightBrothersmadehistoryisnowaglobalindustrydominatedbyadozenfirmsatleasthalfofwhichmakegoodprofits.Yetcommercialaviationconsistsof267internationalcarriersandanother500-plusdomesticones.48Theworld’sbiggestcarrierAmericanAirlineshasbarely7%oftheglobalmarketwhereastheworld’sbiggestcarmakerGeneralMotorshaswithitsassociatedfirmsaboutaquarteroftheworld’sautomobilemarket. Aviationhasbeenincompletelyderegulatedandinonlytwomarkets:AmericaandEurope.Everywhereelsedealsbetweengovernmentsdictatewhofliesunderwhatrules.49Theseaimtopreservestate-ownednationalflag-carriersrunforprestigeratherthanprofitandnumerousrestrictionsonforeignownershiphindercross-borderairlinemergers. InAmericathebignetworkcarriersfacebarrierstoexitwhichhavekepttheirroutenetworkstoolarge.TradeunionsresistingjobcutsandCongressmenopposingrouteclosuresintheirterritoryconspiretoblockchange.InEuropeliberalizationislimitedbybilateraldealsthatpreventforinstanceBritishAirwaysBAflyingtoAmericafromFrankfurtorParis.TousethecarindustryanalogyitisasifonlyRenaultswereallowedtodriveonFrenchmotorways. 50Inairlinestheoptimistsarethosewhothinkthatthingsarenowsobadthattheindustryhasnooptionbuttoevolve.FrederickReidpresidentofDeltaAirLinessaidthateventssincetheSeptember11thattacksaretheequivalentofameteorstrikechangingtheclimateandleadingtoa"compressedevolutionarycycle".Sohowlookingonthebrightsidemighttheindustrylookafterfiveyearsofaccelerateddevelopment ThecarindustrycreatednotlongaftertheWrightBrothersmadehistoryisnowaglobalindustrydominatedbyadozenfirmsatleasthalfofwhichmakegoodprofits.
TheAmazonRiverbasinboaststhelargestriversystemonEarthandharborsanecosystemthatistremendouslycomplex.EarlytravelersfromrenaissanceEuropewereoverwhelmedbytheirfirstencounters.In1531FranciscoPizarrooverthrewtheIncanempireremovingtheemperorfromhisthroneandtakingforSpaintheIncanimperialtreasures.AdecadelaterhisyoungerbrotherventuredeastfromthehighplateauoftheAndesMountainsinpursuitofthefamouscitiesofgoldandspicesthoughttobehiddeninthejungleforest.Goingdowntherivertheexpeditionsoonexhausteditssuppliesandasmallgroupwassentaheadtosearchforfood.EightmonthslaterthisgroupemergedatthemouthoftheAmazonhavingmadewhatwouldprovetobethefirstdescentofthelengthoftheriver.AmissionarywhoaccompaniedthegroupsentaremarkableaccountoftheiradventurestothePopeincludingmentionofthegreatsignaldrumsthatsoundedfromvillagetovillagefarinadvanceoftheirarrivalwarningofthecomingoftheEuropeanstrangers.Hismanuscriptrecordsseeinginnumerablesettlementsalongtheriver—ononedaytheypassedmorethantwentyvillagesinsuccessionandsomeofthesearesaidtohavestretchedforsixmilesormore.Suchreportshaveintriguedscientistseversincefortheydescribedensepopulationsandlargefederationsoftribeswhichifverifiedwouldbeentirelyatoddswithmodernstereotypesofhiddenthinlyscatteredtribesscratchingoutanuncertainexistence.Beginninginthelateseventeenth-centurythesuccessorstothefirstexplorersrecordedandcollectedmanyoftheeverydayobjectsfashionedfromwoodandotherorganicmaterialsthatusuallyrotinatropicalclimate.SuchcollectionshousedinEuropeanmuseumspreserveawindowintoculturesthatweresoontoexperiencehugechangesbroughtaboutbyforeigndiseasesandcruelabuseatthehandsofEuropeans.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950’sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobeanimitationparadiseunabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince.Thepurposeoftheauthorinwritingthetextisto______.
[A]DifferentbehaviorsoftheInternetaddicts [B]ThefindingofaresearchontheInternetaddicts [C]TheInternetaddictionmaydestroyafamily [D]Theestablishmentofanewserviceforwebaddicts [E]TwoexamplesofharmoftheInternetaddiction [F]TheInternetaddictionmaycausemanyproblems It’stheequivalentofinvitingsexaddictstoabrothelorholdinganAlcoholicsAnonymousAAmeetingatthepub.Internetaddictstiredoftheirsquare-eyedkeyboardtappingwaysneedlooknofurtherthantheWebforcounseling. 41.__________. Thereisnowanonlinecounsellingserviceatwww.relateorg.nzforInternetobsessives.JustemailthedetailsofyourInternet-inducedcrisisandhelpcomesdirecttoyourinbox.Thenewbreedofcyber-therapistsseenothingstrangeaboutofferinghelpthroughtheverymediumthatisswallowingtheirclients’freetimeandsplittingtheirmarriages. 42.__________. ThoughsomemayregardInternetaddictionasanotherdubiousailmentdreameduptokeeptherapistsinworkRelationshipServicessaystheproblemisreal.TherapistRobinPaulsaystheretendtobetwoscenarios.Somepeoplemeetthroughchatroomsandfallinlove.It’slikehavinganaffairthentheymeetandit’slikeawhirlwindhoneymoon.It’sdevastatingforthepersonleftbehindandquiteoftenithasnorealfoundation.ThesecondscenarioisthatapersonstartsspendingmoreandmoretimeontheNet.TheymaynotmeetSomeoneelsebuttheydon’tspendanytimewiththeirpartnerandofcoursetherelationshipsuffers. 43.__________. SuchstoriesmayappeartobealmosturbanlegendssoashamedareInternetaddictsandtheirpartners.Arecentsurveyof17251Internetusersfoundnearly6percenthadsomesortofaddictiontothemedium.Theyrevealedthattheironlinehabitcontributedtodisruptedmarriageschildhooddelinquencycrimeandover-spending.Tapintoonlineaddictionsitesandyou’llfindmessagessuchas:"HellomynameisBobandI’maWebaholic." 44.__________. WitnesstheplightofOhiowomanKelliMichettiwholiterallybecameacomputerhackerbecauseofherhusband’sconstantonlinechatting.Whenshecrashedameatcleaverthroughherhusband’scomputerterminalthatsolvedtheproblemalthoughnaturallyitledtodifficultieswiththepolice.OrtaketheclassicInternetaddictionstoryofIngridParkerawomanwhobecamesuchaslavetotheInternet--especiallychatrooms--thatittookoverherlife.Shemadedowithtwohours’sleepanighthadmarathonweekendcomputersessionsofupto17hoursandfellinlovewithamarriedmanintheUSstateofOregon. 45.__________. Dr.KimberlyYoungwhosetupTheCentreforOnlineAddictionwww.netaddictioncominAmericastudied396peoplewhomsheconsideredwerepsychologicallydependentontheNet.Theyrangedinagefrom14to70andspentanaverageof38.5hoursaweekontheWeb.HerstudybackedbyfurtherresearchinBritainfoundthatwomenweremorelikelytobecomeaddicts.Sowhiletheoldstereotypicaladdictwasayoungmanwhospenthoursplayinggamesdownloadingsoftwareorreadingmessagesonnewsgroupsthenewimageisofayoungwomanwhofrittersawayhourse-mailingfriends.buyingbooksandCDsonlinetalkinginchatroomsandlookingforinformationfornextyear’sholiday. "IguessIwasatypicalexampleofsomeonehookedontheInternet"saysParkerwhonowspendsjustanhouradayonline."Idon’tthinkanyonewhoismarriedorinasoundrelationshipshouldreallybespendinghourstalkingtosomeoneelseandignoringtheirnearestanddearest."WhileParkerprovidedherowntherapybyputtingherexperiencesdownonpapersherecommendsotherstakeuptheonlinecounsellingofferorlogofffromtheWorldwideWebgradually. 45
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 5
TheAmazonRiverbasinboaststhelargestriversystemonEarthandharborsanecosystemthatistremendouslycomplex.EarlytravelersfromrenaissanceEuropewereoverwhelmedbytheirfirstencounters.In1531FranciscoPizarrooverthrewtheIncanempireremovingtheemperorfromhisthroneandtakingforSpaintheIncanimperialtreasures.AdecadelaterhisyoungerbrotherventuredeastfromthehighplateauoftheAndesMountainsinpursuitofthefamouscitiesofgoldandspicesthoughttobehiddeninthejungleforest.Goingdowntherivertheexpeditionsoonexhausteditssuppliesandasmallgroupwassentaheadtosearchforfood.EightmonthslaterthisgroupemergedatthemouthoftheAmazonhavingmadewhatwouldprovetobethefirstdescentofthelengthoftheriver. AmissionarywhoaccompaniedthegroupsentaremarkableaccountoftheiradventurestothePopeincludingmentionofthegreatsignaldrumsthatsoundedfromvillagetovillagefarinadvanceoftheirarrivalwarningofthecomingoftheEuropeanstrangers.Hismanuscriptrecordsseeinginnumerablesettlementsalongtheriver—ononedaytheypassedmorethantwentyvillagesinsuccessionandsomeofthesearesaidtohavestretchedforsixmilesormore.Suchreportshaveintriguedscientistseversincefortheydescribedensepopulationsandlargefederationsoftribeswhichifverifiedwouldbeentirelyatoddswithmodernstereotypesofhiddenthinlyscatteredtribesscratchingoutanuncertainexistence. Beginninginthelateseventeenth-centurythesuccessorstothefirstexplorersrecordedandcollectedmanyoftheeverydayobjectsfashionedfromwoodandotherorganicmaterialsthatusuallyrotinatropicalclimate.SuchcollectionshousedinEuropeanmuseumspreservea"window"intoculturesthatweresoontoexperiencehugechangesbroughtaboutbyforeigndiseasesandcruelabuseatthehandsofEuropeans. PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950’sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. Accordingtothefirstparagraphasmallgroupsucceeded
Althoughmanyfactorsaffecthumanhealthduringperiodsinspaceweightlessnessisthedominantandsinglemostimportantone.Thedirectandindirecteffectsofweightlessnessleadtoaseriesofrelatedresponses.Ultimatelythewholebodyfrombonestobrainkidneystobowelsreacts.Whenspacetravelersgraspthewalloftheirspacecraftandjerktheirbodiesbackandforththeysayitfeelsasthoughtheyarestationaryandthespacecraftismoving.Thereasonisbasedinourrelianceongravitytoperceiveoursurroundings.Thecontinuousanduniversalnatureofgravityremovesitfromourdailynoticebutourbodiesneverforget.Whetherwerealizeitornotwehaveevolvedalargenumberofsilentautomaticreactionstocopewiththeconstantstressoflivinginadownward-pullingworld.Onlywhenwedecreaseorincreasetheeffectiveforceofgravityonourbodiesdoourmindsperceiveit.Oursensesprovideaccurateinformationaboutthelocationofourcenterofmassandtherelativepositionsofourbodyparts.Ourbrainsintegratesignalsfromoureyesandearswithotherinformationfromtheorgansinourinnerearfromourmusclesandjointsandfromoursensesoftouchandpressure.Theapparatusoftheinnerearispartitionedintotwodistinctcomponents:circularfluid-filledtubesthatsensetheangleoftheheadandtwobagsfilledwithcalciumcrystalsembeddedinathickfluidwhichrespondtolinearmovement.Themovementofthecalciumcrystalssendsasignaltothebraintotellusthedirectionofgravity.Thisisnottheonlycuethebrainreceives.Nervesinthemusclesjointsandskin—particularlytheslainonthebottomofthefeet—respondtotheweightoflimbsegmentsandotherbodyparts.Removinggravitytransformsthesesignals.Theinnerearnolongerperceivesadownwardtendencywhentheheadmoves.Thelimbsnolongerhaveweightsomusclesarenolongerrequiredtocontractandrelaxintheusualwaytomaintainpostureandbringaboutmovement.Nervesthatrespondtotouchandpressureinthefeetandanklesnolongersignalthedirectionofdown.Theseandotherchangescontributetoorientationillusionssuchasafeelingthatthebodyorthespacecraftspontaneouslychangesdirection.In1961aRussianastronautreportedvividsensationsofbeingupsidedown;onespaceshuttlespecialistinastronomysaidWhenthemainenginescutoffIimmediatelyfeltasthoughwehadinverted180degrees.Suchillusionscanrecurevenaftersometimeinspace.Accordingtothepassagewedonotperceivegravitybecause______.
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 19
TheAmazonRiverbasinboaststhelargestriversystemonEarthandharborsanecosystemthatistremendouslycomplex.EarlytravelersfromrenaissanceEuropewereoverwhelmedbytheirfirstencounters.In1531FranciscoPizarrooverthrewtheIncanempireremovingtheemperorfromhisthroneandtakingforSpaintheIncanimperialtreasures.AdecadelaterhisyoungerbrotherventuredeastfromthehighplateauoftheAndesMountainsinpursuitofthefamouscitiesofgoldandspicesthoughttobehiddeninthejungleforest.Goingdowntherivertheexpeditionsoonexhausteditssuppliesandasmallgroupwassentaheadtosearchforfood.EightmonthslaterthisgroupemergedatthemouthoftheAmazonhavingmadewhatwouldprovetobethefirstdescentofthelengthoftheriver.AmissionarywhoaccompaniedthegroupsentaremarkableaccountoftheiradventurestothePopeincludingmentionofthegreatsignaldrumsthatsoundedfromvillagetovillagefarinadvanceoftheirarrivalwarningofthecomingoftheEuropeanstrangers.Hismanuscriptrecordsseeinginnumerablesettlementsalongtheriver—ononedaytheypassedmorethantwentyvillagesinsuccessionandsomeofthesearesaidtohavestretchedforsixmilesormore.Suchreportshaveintriguedscientistseversincefortheydescribedensepopulationsandlargefederationsoftribeswhichifverifiedwouldbeentirelyatoddswithmodernstereotypesofhiddenthinlyscatteredtribesscratchingoutanuncertainexistence.Beginninginthelateseventeenth-centurythesuccessorstothefirstexplorersrecordedandcollectedmanyoftheeverydayobjectsfashionedfromwoodandotherorganicmaterialsthatusuallyrotinatropicalclimate.SuchcollectionshousedinEuropeanmuseumspreserveawindowintoculturesthatweresoontoexperiencehugechangesbroughtaboutbyforeigndiseasesandcruelabuseatthehandsofEuropeans.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950’sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobeanimitationparadiseunabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince.Theeverydayobjectsrecordedandcollectedbythesuccessorstothefirstexplorersmayreveal______.
A.Recentarchaeologicalresearchhasfocusedonaphenomenonbarelynoticedbefore:extensivepatchesofrichblacksoilfoundalongthebanksandonterracesaboveallmajorriversintheAmazon.Somecoveranareaofmanyacresandareupto6feetdeep.Theyarethoughttohaveformedovermanycenturiesastheaccumulatedproductoforganicremainsleftbynativesettlements.ThesesoilsareusuallyfilledwithfragmentsofbustedceramicsandarenowbeingstudiedforcluestotheriseoftropicalforestcivilizationsintheAmazonBasin.Localfarmersregardtheblacksoilsasa"giftfromthepast"becausetheyarenaturallyfertileandhavetheabilitytosupportawiderangeofcrops. B.Secondlythereisatrulyimpressivediversityoflanguageswithseveralhundreddistincttonguesanddialects.ThisverbaldiversitymusthaveevolvedoverthousandsofyearsandimpliesanoccupationoftheAmazonbasinforatleast14000yearsafiguresupportedbyarchaeologicalevidence.TherockartintheAmazonBasinmaybeasoldashumanoccupationitself.Imagesarecarvedandpaintedonexposedrocknearrapidsandwaterfallswherefishingismostproductiveandincavesandrocksheltersclosetoarchaeologicalsites. C.Twofactorshavebeeninstrumentalinliftingtheveilofmisunderstanding.Firstisasurprisinglydiverserangeofceramicstyles.Recentresearchseemstoconfirmthatacreativeexplosionofstylesoccurredabout2000yearsago.ArchaeologicaldigsinthehighestreachesoftheUpperAmazonhavedemonstratedtheexistenceofawidespreadstyleofpaintinglargewatertightjarsinboldblackredandcreamdesigns.ThissamestylehasbeenfoundonanisleatthemouthoftheAmazonandappearstohaveitsoriginswheretheAmazonmeetstheoceanlaterspreadingacrossmuchoftheUpperAmazon.Thestyletranscendslocalandregionalculturesandpointstoconsiderableintercoursebetweensocietiesalongthevastrivernetwork. D.ThenativepeoplesoftheAmazoncannolongerbeseenasisolatedcommunitiesinthedepthsoftheforestordispersedalongrivers.Westillhavemuchtolearnabouttheirsocietiesbuttherainforestshouldnolongerbeseenasanuntouched"paradise". E.AmongthemostexcitingdiscoveriesarefuneraljarsdatingtoA.D.1400-1700foundincavesandrocksheltersnearthemouthoftheAmazon.Thebonesofmenwomenandchildrenwerepreservedinindividuallydedicatedvessels.Itseemsthatthesiteswerevisitedregularlyovertheyearsandnewjarsaddedasfamilymembersexpired.Theseburialsreflectthefamilytiesofancientsettlementsandtheirnurturingoflinksbetweenthelivingandthedead. F.PopulationcollapseandmovementalongtheprincipalriversoftheAmazonsystemhavecontributedtoaveilofmisunderstandingthathaslongcoveredtheculturalachievementsoftropicalforestsocieties.Diffusebandshuntingdeepintheforestinterioreventuallycametobeseenasthetypicaltropicalforestadaptation.SomuchsothatwhenarchaeologicalstudiesbeganinearnestatthemouthoftheAmazoninthe1950sscientistsarguedthatthesophisticatedculturetheywerediscoveringcouldnothaveoriginatedintheAmazonBasinitselfbutmusthavebeenderivedfrommoreadvancedcultureselsewhere.Theyimaginedthetropicalforesttobean"imitationparadise"unabletosupportmuchbeyondasimplehunting-and-gatheringwayoflife.Thismistakenideahasexertedapersistentinfluenceeversince. G.ThefutureoftheAmazonBasinisnowasubjectoffiercedebate.Knowledgeaboutthepasthasavitalroletoplayinplanninganddecisionmakingforthefuture.Archaeologypointstosuccessfulmethodsforadaptingtotheforestgroundedinpracticalexpertiseandempiricalknowledgeofthelimitationsandpossibilitiesofthisenvironment.Thesetechniquesforwisemanagementarebecomingamatterofglobalconcern. Order: 41
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 11
Itiswidelybelievedthatournever-endingquestformaterialgoodsispartofthebasiccharacterofhumanbeings.Accordingtothepopularbeliefwemaynotlikeitbutthere’slittlewecandoaboutit.Despiteitspopularitythisviewofhumannatureiswrong.Whilehumanbeingsmayhaveabasicdesiretostrivetowardssomethingthereisnothinginevitableaboutmaterialgoods.Therearenumerousexamplesofsocietiesinwhichthingshaveplayedahighlyrestrictedrule.InmedievalEuropetheacquisitionofgoodswasrelativelyunimportant.Thecommonpeoplewhoselivesweresurelypoorbymodernstandardsshowedstrongpreferencesforleisureratherthanmoney.Inthenineteenth-andearlytwentieth-centuryUnitedStatesthereisalsoconsiderableevidencethatmanyworkingpeoplealsoexhibitedarestrictedappetiteformaterialgoods.Materialismisnotabasictraitofhumannaturebutaspecificproductofcapitalism.Withthedevelopmentofthemarketsystemmaterialismspilledoverforthefirsttimebeyondthecirclesoftherich.Thegrowthofthemiddleclasscreatedalargegroupofpotentialbuyersandthepossibilitythatmassculturecouldbeorientedaroundmaterialgoods.Thisprocesscanbeseennotonlyinhistoricalexperiencesbutisnowgoingoninsomepartsofthedevelopingworldwherethegrowthofalargemiddleclasshascontributedtoextensivematerialismandthebreakdownoftraditionalvalues.IntheUnitedStatestheturningpointwasthe1920s—thepointatwhichthepsychologyofshortagegavewaytothepsychologyofabundance.Thiswasacrucialperiodforthedevelopmentofmodernmaterialism.Economyanddisciplinewereout;wasteandexcesswerein.Materialismflourished—bothasasocialideologyandintermsofhighratesofrealspending.Inthemidstofallthisbuyingwecandetecttheoriginsofmodernconsumerdiscontent.ThiswasthedecadeduringwhichtheAmericandreamorwhatwasthencalledtheAmericanstandardoflivingcapturedthenation’simagination.Butitwasalwayssomethingofanillusion.Americanscomplainedaboutitemstheycouldnotafford—despitethefactthatinthe1920smostfamilieshadtelephonesvirtuallyallhadpurchasedlifeinsurancetwo-thirdsownedtheirownhomesandtookvacationsandoverhalfhadmotorcars.ThediscontentexpressedbymanyAmericanswaspromoted—andtoacertainextentevencreated—bymanufacturers.Theexplosionofconsumercreditmadethetaskeasierasautomobilesradioselectricrefrigeratorswashingmachines—evenjewelryandforeigntravel—couldbepaidforininstallments.Bytheendofthe1920s60percentofcarsradiosandfurniturewerebeingpurchasedthisway.Theabilitytobuywithoutactuallyhavingmoneyhelpedencourageaclimateofinstantsatisfactionexpandingexpectationsandultimatelymaterialism.Accordingtothepassagematerialism______.
NiagaraisanIndianwordwhichmeans"roaringwater".IndeedtheroarofthefallingwaterofNiagaracanbeheard1adistanceof5kms.Imagine2ofwaterflowingoveracliff90feethighandyouwillgetanideaofthatterriblenoise.And3tremendouspowertheNiagaraRiverhas!Itmovesbigrocksaboutandthrowsthemintotheboilingwaterbelow.4agoanoldshipwithoutsinglepersononboardwasputinmid-stream.Itsaileddowntheriver5atoyboatwithgreatspeed.Havingreachedthefalltheshipdroppedintotheboilingwaternever6again.Thereweresomepeoplewhowantedtobecomefamous7swimmingacrossthemostdangerouspartoftheNiagaraRiver.OneofthemwasCaptainWebbwhosaidthathewouldtrytoswimcrosstheNiagarawhich8crowdsofpeople.OntheeveningofJuly1st1893CaptainWebbcameuptotheriverand9aplunge.Hishavingjumpedintothewater10manypeoplewithhorror.Soonheappearedinthemiddleoftheriver.Aloudshoutwentupfromthecrowdbutamomentlatertherewas11silence.Themanhaddisappearedunderthewater.Thousandsofeyes12ontheriverbutthemanwasdrowned.In1902acertainMissTaylordecidedtogooverthefallsinabarrel.Thereweredifferentkindsofpillowsinsidethebarreltopreventherfrom13.HavingexaminedthebarrelcarefullyMissTaylorgotin.Thebarrelwasclosedandthen14intothewater.Havingreachedthefallsitoverturnedandwasshotdownbytheterrible15ofthewater.WhenthebarrelwasfinallycaughtandopenedMissTaylorcameoutalive16withafrightenedlookinhereyes.Onceacrowdofvisitorssawarope17overfromonebankoftherivertotheother.Thentheysawaman18therope.ThemanwasanactorBlondin19.HemanagedtocrossNiagaraFallsonatightrope.Thepeopleonthebankweresurprisedathis20itsowell. 1
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