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What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanzPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 17
Goodlooksthevideo-gamesindustryisdiscoveringwillgetyouonlysofar.Thegraphicsonamoderngamemayfaroutstripthepixellatedblobsofthe1980sbutthereismoretoagoodgamethaneyecandy.Photo-realisticgraphicsmakethelackofauthenticityofotheraspectsofgameplaymoreapparent.Itisnotenoughforgamecharacterstolookbetter—theirbehaviourmustalsobemoresophisticatedsayresearchersworkingattheinterfacebetweengamingandartificialintelligenceAI. Today’sgamesmaylookbetterbutthegameplayis"basicallythesame"asitwasafewyearsagosaysMichaelMateasthefounderoftheExperimentalGameLabattheGeorgiaInstituteofTechnology.AIhesuggestsoffersan"untappedfrontier"ofnewpossibilities."Wearetoppingoutonthegraphicssowhat’sgoingtobethenextthingthatimprovesgame-play"asksJohnLairddirectoroftheAIlabattheUniversityofMichigan.ImprovedAIisabigpartoftheanswerhesays.Thoseintheindustryagree.Thehigh-definitiongraphicspossibleonnext-generationgamesconsolessuchasMicrosoft’sXbox360areraisingexpectationsacrosstheboardsaysNeilYoungofElectronicArtstheworld’sbiggestgamespublisher."Youhavetohavehigh-resolutionmodelswhichrequireshigh-resolutionanimation"hesays"sonowIexpecthigh-resolutionbehaviour." RepresentativesfromindustryandacademiawillconvergeinMarinadelReyCalifornialaterthismonthforthesecondannualArtificialIntelligenceandInteractiveDigitalEntertainmentAIIDEconference.TheaimsaysDrLairdwhowillchairtheeventistoincreasethetrafficofpeopleandideasbetweenthetwospheres."GameshavebeenveryimportanttoAIthroughtheyears"henotes.AlanTuringoneofthepioneersofcomputinginthe1940swroteasimplechess-playingprogrambeforetherewereanycomputerstoruniton;healsoproposedtheTuringtestaquestion-and-answergamethatisayardstickformachineintelligence.EvensoAIresearchandvideogamesexistedinseparateworldsuntilrecently.TheAItechniquesusedingameswereverysimplisticfromanacademicperspectivesaysDr.MateaswhileAIresearcherswereinturncluelessaboutmoderngames.Buthesays"bothsidesarelearningandarenowmuchcloser." Considerforexamplethesoftwarethatcontrolsanenemyinafirst-personshooterFPS—agameinwhichtheplayerviewstheworldalongthebarrelofagun.Thebehaviourofenemiesusedtobepre-scripted:waituntiltheplayerisnearbypopupfrombehindaboxfireweaponandthenrollandhidebehindanotherboxforexample.Butsomegamesnowusefarmoreadvanced"planningsystems"importedfromacademia."Insteadofscriptsandhand-codedbehaviourtheAImonstersinanFPScanreasonfromfirstprinciples"saysDr.Mateas.Theycanforexampleworkoutwhethertheplayercanseethemornotseekoutcoverwheninjuredandsoon."Ratherthanjustmovingbetweenpredefinedspotsthecharactersinawargamecandynamicallyshiftdependingonwhat’shappening"saysFionaSperryofElectronicArts. Iftheindustryisborrowingideasfromacademiatheoppositeisalsotrue.Commercialgamessuchas"UnrealTournament"whichcanbeeasilymodifiedorscriptedarebeingadoptedasresearchtoolsinuniversitiessaysDr.Laird.Suchtoolsprovideflexibleenvironmentsforexperimentsandalsomeanthatstudentsendupwithtransferableskills. ButthegreatestpotentialliesincombiningresearchwithgamedevelopmentarguesDr.Mateas."Onlybywrestlingwithrealcontentarethetechnicalproblemsrevealedandonlybywrestlingwithtechnologydoesitgiveyouinsightintowhatnewkindsofcontentarepossible"hesays. TheexampleofFPSisusedinthepassageto
Thetelecommunicationspharmaceuticalandairlineindustriesallhaveundergoneradicalchangesinrecentyears.Pharmaceuticalcompanieswhichoncesolddrugstothedoctorsthatdispensedthemswitchedtothesolution-sellingmethodandstarteddealingwithhealth-carecompanies.Andmanymajorairlinesconsolidatedatthesametimethatlow-costfirmslikeJetBlueenteredthemarket. Ineachoftheseindustriesthegamechangedandwithnewrulescamenewwaystowin.ThatisthepremiseofHarvardBusinessSchool’s"ChangingtheGame.NegotiationandCompetitiveDecisionMaking."Theprogramwhichcoversnotonlydeal-makingbutalsotopicsasdiverseasonlineauctionsandstrategicpartnerships"isforcompaniesthataregoingthroughfundamentalchangeinthewaythingsaredone"saysMaxBazermanprogramchairandprofessorofbusinessadministrationattheschool. ThisisnotaprogramfornovicessaysBazerman;mostparticipantshavealreadyattendedageneralnegotiationprogram.In"ChangingtheGame"participantslearntounderstandtheirthoughtprocessesregardingnegotiationtocomparerationalandintuitivedecision-makingstrategiesandtoidentifycommonmistakesmadebyeventhemostexperiencedprofessionals.Byfocusingoncompetitiveenvironmentstheprogramdrawsonsomeofthemostadvancedconceptsfromtheemergingareasofbehavioraleconomicsbehavioraldecisionresearchandbehavioralfinance. Participantsengageinsimulatednegotiationsthathighlightthetensionbetweencreatingandassessingvalueandlearnhowtothinkaboutbothsimultaneously.Thesoup-to-nutssimulationsencompasspreparationteambuildingnegotiatingandfeedbackaswellasthedevelopmentofaconceptualstructureforthinkingaboutnegotiationsmorerationally.Participantsthenapplythatstructureintheircritiquesofseverallarge-scalenegotiationcases.Ultimatelyparticipantsapplytheirnewly-honedanalyticskillstotheirowncompaniesandcritiqueofpastnegotiations. Negotiationscantakemanyformsofcourse.Bazermannotesthatauctionsarebecomingincreasinglycommon.Thankstoarenewedfocusondrivingclowncostsauctionshaveemergedasavaluablewayforbuyerstoexertmaximumleveragealthoughthecourseoffersadvicetosellersaswell.Hereagaincourseworkfocusesbothonanalysisofcasestudiesandonsimulationsthatgiveparticipantsachancetorolluptheirsleevesandputthemselvestothetest. "Max’sapproachismorepragmaticthanotherprogramsI’vetaken"saysGerryDullyseniorvicepresidentofglobalmarketingandlogisticsatMethanexaproducerofmethanolbasedinVancouver."LookingatmypriorexperienceIcouldseewhatmistakesImadeandI’mmoreconsciousofthemnow.ThecoursehadaprofoundimpactonhowI’vemodifiedmybehaviorinnegotiatingsituations. ThewordnovicefirstsentencePara.3probablyrefersto
KingRichardIIIwasamonster.HepoisonedhiswifestolethethronefromhistwoyoungnephewsandorderedthemtobesmotheredintheTowerofLondon.RichardwasasortofAntichristtheKing--"thatbottledspiderthatpoisonousbunchbackedtoad." AnywaythatwasShakespeare’sversion.Shakespearedidwhattheplaywrightdoes:heturnedhistoryintoavividarticulateorganizeddream-repeatablenightly.Heputthecrouchbackonstageandsoldtickets. AndwhoWouldsaythattherealRichardknowntofamilyandfriendswasnotidenticaltoShakespeare’smemorablyloathsomecreationTheactualRichardwentdimmingintothepastandvanished.Whenalltheeye-witnessesaregonetheartist’simaginationbeginstotwist. VariationsontheKingRichardEffectareatworkinOliverStone’sJFK.RichardIIIwasartbutitwaspropagandatoo.ShakespearetookthedetailsofhisplotfromTudorhistorianswhowantedtoblackenRichard’sname.SeveralcenturiespassedbeforeotherhistoriansbegantowriteaboutRichard’svirtuesandsuggestthathemayhavebeenavictimofTudormaliceandwhatisthecleverestconspiracyofall:art. JFKisalongandpowerfulharangueaboutthedeathoftheman--Stonekeepscalling"theslainyoungking.’WhataretherulesofStone’sgameIsStonefunctioningascommercialentertainerPropagandistDocumentaryfilmmakerHistorianJournalistFantasistSensationalistCrazyconspiracy-mongerLoneherocrusadingforthetruthagainstacorruptEstablishmentAnswer:someoftheabove. ThefirstsuperficialeffectofJFKistoraiseangrylittlescrupleslikeweltsintheconscience.Wouldn’titbeabsurdifagenerationofyoungerAmericanswithnomemoryof1963weretoformtheirideasaboutJohnKennedy’sassassinationfromOliverStone’sreportofitButworsethingshavehappened--includingperhapstheWarrenCommissionreport StoneusesasuspectmixedartformandJFKraisesthefamiliarethicalandhistoricalproblemsofdocudrama.ButsowhatArtistshavealwaysusedpubliceventsasrawmaterialhavetakenhistoryintotheirimaginationsandtransformedit.ThefallofTroyvanishedintotheIliad.TheBattleofBorodinofounditsmostmemorablepermanenceinTolstoy’simaginingofitinWarandPeace. Especiallyinaworldofinsatiableelectronicstorytellingrealhistoryprocreatesendlesslyconjuringnewversionsofitself.Publiclifehasbecomeametaphysicalbreederoffictions.Watergatebecameanalmostcontinuoustelevisionminiseries--althoughitisinterestingthatthemovieofWoodwardandBernstein’sAllThePresident’sMenstayedclosetotheknownfactsandunlikeJFKdidnotvalidatedarkconjecture. Itcanbeinferredfromthetextthatpubliclife
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanzPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 11
YouareamanagerofAdministrativeOfficenamedJ.S.Sanford.TheboardofdirectorshavedecidedtorefurbishtheofficesofFinancialDepartment.Writeamemototellalltheemployeesthat: 1Howlongwillthisprojectlast 2WhereshallbethetemporaryofficesfortheFinancialDepartmentduringthisperiod’ 3Whichkindofaffairsmightbeinfluencedduringthisperiodandwhatwillbethecorrespondingsolutions Youshouldwriteabout100words.
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 1
Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethatyouareflyinghigherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptopthinnerthanabrown-paperenvelopeoryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue. Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuseswarriorsentrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprintingpressstudioandtheatrepaintbrushandgallerypianoandradiothemailaswellasthemailcarrier.41 Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevicethefirstmediamachinethatservesasthemodeofproductionmeansofdistributionsiteofreceptionandplaceofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury’sculturemachine. Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputerwemustalsotreadwithcaution.42Icallitasecretwarfortworeasons.Firstmostpeopledonotrealisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Secondthemajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing. Allanimalsdownloadbutonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yetforthemostparttheanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods—paintingssculptureandarchitecture—andsuperfluousexperiences—musicliteraturereligionandphilosophy.43 Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachinesmostpeoplearestillstuckindownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmediaapyramidofproductionremainswithasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterialaslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontentandahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.44 Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton. 45 WhatcountsasmeaningfuluploadingMydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof"stickiness"—creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere. [A]Ofcourseitispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureandultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskillsbutfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity. [B]Applicationsliketumblr.comwhichallowuserstocombinepictureswordsandothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethemhavethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusingentertainingandenlighteningothers. [C]Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday. [D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloadinganduploading—betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation--whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine. [E]ThechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers. [F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepasthalf-centurymuchoftheworld’smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium—television—andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading. [G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflowtoencouragethoughtfuldownloadingandevenmoreimportantlymeaningfuluploading. 45
Anissuethatmanycorporateexecutivesignoreisthepossibilitythataggressivepeopleseekreinforcementfortheirowndestructiveacts.Televisionviolenceforinstanceandthewidespreadpublicconcernaccompanyingithaveledtocallsforstrictcontrolsonthedepictionofviolentprograms. Intheirdecisionmakingsomeproducersdonottakeresponsibilityfortheequallyimportantminority.Insteadtheymaygeartheircontenttowardthemasseswhocravesexuallyexplicitandviolentaction.Fortunatelythisgrouphastheabilitytodisseminateviolentactionrationallyrealizingthatinrealitypeoplewhocommitactsofviolencehavetocompensatefortheiractionsbytakingfullresponsibilityfortheharmtheycausetoothers. Noteveryonecandistinguishfactfromfantasy.Studiesshowthatinoneweekofcontentanalysisofprime-timeoutputonsevenNewYorkCitychannelstherewere3421actsandthreatsofviolenceobserved.Children’sfictionalentertainmentprogramshadthreetimesthefrequencyofviolentactsorthreatsrecordedinadultprograms. Similarlyaggressiveadultsareseekingreinforcementfortheirownanti-socialbehaviorfromseeingattractivetelevisioncharactersbehaveinthesameway.Behavioralevidencehasindicatedthattheanti-socialeffectsofviolenttelevisionportrayalsarestrongestandaremostlikelytooccuramongindividualswhoarealreadyaggressive.TheethicalquestionisshouldtelevisionsubmittomassappealortakeintoconsiderationtheeffectsoncertainmembersofsocietyincludingchildrenTheconsequencesoftelevisingviolencearenotonlyharmfultosomeviewersbutconcurrentlyaffectthetelevisionstationsintheformoflossofviewersandpossiblygainingabadreputation.Eventhoughmanyassociationshavebeencondemningtelevisionviolencetheireffortshavehadlittleeffectonthelargemoney-makingcorporations. Inhisarticle"SexandViolence"JoeSaltzmanstates"Ifasproducersargueviolenceisapartofthehumanconditionthensoisresponsibility.Inreallifeyoujustdonotcommitmayhemandthengoontothenextscene." Itisalsonecessarytorealizethatviolenceispartofournatureandofourlife.Almosteverydayweareparticipantsandobserversofviolencewhetheritisnaturalviolencetheatricalorfictionalviolencesportingeventviolenceorpoliticalviolence.Toexcludeallscenesofviolenceformtelevisionwouldbetofalsifythepictureoflife.Televisionmediacan"encourageoraid"destructivebehaviornot"cause"it.Wehopethatthedecisionmakerswillpromotestrongmoralethicalvaluesintheirdecisionmakingoratleastconsidertheminordertohelppreventourviolentself-destructivebehavior. Thereasonwhysomeproducerscontinuetodeliverviolentcontentstothesocietyisthat
Anissuethatmanycorporateexecutivesignoreisthepossibilitythataggressivepeopleseekreinforcementfortheirowndestructiveacts.Televisionviolenceforinstanceandthewidespreadpublicconcernaccompanyingithaveledtocallsforstrictcontrolsonthedepictionofviolentprograms. Intheirdecisionmakingsomeproducersdonottakeresponsibilityfortheequallyimportantminority.Insteadtheymaygeartheircontenttowardthemasseswhocravesexuallyexplicitandviolentaction.Fortunatelythisgrouphastheabilitytodisseminateviolentactionrationallyrealizingthatinrealitypeoplewhocommitactsofviolencehavetocompensatefortheiractionsbytakingfullresponsibilityfortheharmtheycausetoothers. Noteveryonecandistinguishfactfromfantasy.Studiesshowthatinoneweekofcontentanalysisofprime-timeoutputonsevenNewYorkCitychannelstherewere3421actsandthreatsofviolenceobserved.Children’sfictionalentertainmentprogramshadthreetimesthefrequencyofviolentactsorthreatsrecordedinadultprograms. Similarlyaggressiveadultsareseekingreinforcementfortheirownanti-socialbehaviorfromseeingattractivetelevisioncharactersbehaveinthesameway.Behavioralevidencehasindicatedthattheanti-socialeffectsofviolenttelevisionportrayalsarestrongestandaremostlikelytooccuramongindividualswhoarealreadyaggressive.TheethicalquestionisshouldtelevisionsubmittomassappealortakeintoconsiderationtheeffectsoncertainmembersofsocietyincludingchildrenTheconsequencesoftelevisingviolencearenotonlyharmfultosomeviewersbutconcurrentlyaffectthetelevisionstationsintheformoflossofviewersandpossiblygainingabadreputation.Eventhoughmanyassociationshavebeencondemningtelevisionviolencetheireffortshavehadlittleeffectonthelargemoney-makingcorporations. Inhisarticle"SexandViolence"JoeSaltzmanstates"Ifasproducersargueviolenceisapartofthehumanconditionthensoisresponsibility.Inreallifeyoujustdonotcommitmayhemandthengoontothenextscene." Itisalsonecessarytorealizethatviolenceispartofournatureandofourlife.Almosteverydayweareparticipantsandobserversofviolencewhetheritisnaturalviolencetheatricalorfictionalviolencesportingeventviolenceorpoliticalviolence.Toexcludeallscenesofviolenceformtelevisionwouldbetofalsifythepictureoflife.Televisionmediacan"encourageoraid"destructivebehaviornot"cause"it.Wehopethatthedecisionmakerswillpromotestrongmoralethicalvaluesintheirdecisionmakingoratleastconsidertheminordertohelppreventourviolentself-destructivebehavior. ThemayhemJoeSaltzman’smentionedrefersto
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanzPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 19
KingRichardIIIwasamonster.HepoisonedhiswifestolethethronefromhistwoyoungnephewsandorderedthemtobesmotheredintheTowerofLondon.RichardwasasortofAntichristtheKing--"thatbottledspiderthatpoisonousbunchbackedtoad." AnywaythatwasShakespeare’sversion.Shakespearedidwhattheplaywrightdoes:heturnedhistoryintoavividarticulateorganizeddream-repeatablenightly.Heputthecrouchbackonstageandsoldtickets. AndwhoWouldsaythattherealRichardknowntofamilyandfriendswasnotidenticaltoShakespeare’smemorablyloathsomecreationTheactualRichardwentdimmingintothepastandvanished.Whenalltheeye-witnessesaregonetheartist’simaginationbeginstotwist. VariationsontheKingRichardEffectareatworkinOliverStone’sJFK.RichardIIIwasartbutitwaspropagandatoo.ShakespearetookthedetailsofhisplotfromTudorhistorianswhowantedtoblackenRichard’sname.SeveralcenturiespassedbeforeotherhistoriansbegantowriteaboutRichard’svirtuesandsuggestthathemayhavebeenavictimofTudormaliceandwhatisthecleverestconspiracyofall:art. JFKisalongandpowerfulharangueaboutthedeathoftheman--Stonekeepscalling"theslainyoungking.’WhataretherulesofStone’sgameIsStonefunctioningascommercialentertainerPropagandistDocumentaryfilmmakerHistorianJournalistFantasistSensationalistCrazyconspiracy-mongerLoneherocrusadingforthetruthagainstacorruptEstablishmentAnswer:someoftheabove. ThefirstsuperficialeffectofJFKistoraiseangrylittlescrupleslikeweltsintheconscience.Wouldn’titbeabsurdifagenerationofyoungerAmericanswithnomemoryof1963weretoformtheirideasaboutJohnKennedy’sassassinationfromOliverStone’sreportofitButworsethingshavehappened--includingperhapstheWarrenCommissionreport StoneusesasuspectmixedartformandJFKraisesthefamiliarethicalandhistoricalproblemsofdocudrama.ButsowhatArtistshavealwaysusedpubliceventsasrawmaterialhavetakenhistoryintotheirimaginationsandtransformedit.ThefallofTroyvanishedintotheIliad.TheBattleofBorodinofounditsmostmemorablepermanenceinTolstoy’simaginingofitinWarandPeace. Especiallyinaworldofinsatiableelectronicstorytellingrealhistoryprocreatesendlesslyconjuringnewversionsofitself.Publiclifehasbecomeametaphysicalbreederoffictions.Watergatebecameanalmostcontinuoustelevisionminiseries--althoughitisinterestingthatthemovieofWoodwardandBernstein’sAllThePresident’sMenstayedclosetotheknownfactsandunlikeJFKdidnotvalidatedarkconjecture. Shakespeare’screationisusedinthetexttointroduce
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 3
In1880SirJoshuaWaddiloveaVictorianphilanthropistfoundedProvidentFinancialtoprovideaffordableloanstoworking-classfamiliesinandaroundBradfordinnorthernEngland.ThismonthhiscompanynowoneofBritain’sleadingprovidersof"homecredit"—smallshort-termunsecuredloans—beganthenationwiderolloutofVanquisacreditcardaimedatpeoplethatmainstreamlendersshun.Thecardoffersupto￡200$380ofcreditataprice:fortheriskiestcustomerstheannualinterestratewillbe69%. Providentsaysthatthetypicalinterestrateiscloserto50%andthatitchargesnofeesforlatepaymentsorbreachingcreditlimits.Stillthatistripletherateonregularcreditcardsandfarabovethe30%chargedbystorecards.AndtheVanquiscardisbeinglaunchedjustwhenBritain’spoliticiansandmediaarefullofworryaboutsoaringconsumerdebt.Lastmonthamantookhisownlifeafterrunningupdebtsof￡130000on22differentcreditcards. Creditcardsfor"sub-prime"borrowersastheindustrydelicatelycallsthosewithpoorcreditrecordsarenewinBritainbuthavebeencommoninAmericaforawhile.Lendersbeganissuingthemwhentheprimemarketbecamesaturatedpromptingthemtolookfornewsourcesofprofit.EveninAmericathesub-primemarkethasplentyofroomforgrowth.DavidRobertsonoftheNilsonReportatrademagazinereckonsthatoutstandingsub-primecredit-carddebtaccountsforonly3%ofthe$597billionthatAmericansoweonplastic.Thesub-primesectorgrewby7.9%lastyearcomparedwithonly2.6%fortheindustryasawhole. Youmightwonderthoughhowcompaniescanmakemoneyfromlendingtocustomerstheyknowtobebadrisks—oratanyratehowtheycandoitlegitimately.Whereasdelinquenciesinthecredit-cardindustryasawholearearound4%-5%thoseinthesub-primemarketarealmosttwiceashighandcanreach15%inhardtimes. Obviouslyissuerschargehigherinterestratestocompensatethemforthehigherriskofnotbeingrepaid.Andallacrossthecredit-cardindustrytheassessmentandpricingofriskshasbeengettingmoreandmorerefinedthankslargelytoadvancesintechnologyanddataprocessing.Companiesalsousesophisticatedcomputerprogramstotrackslowerpaymentorothersignsofincreasedrisk.Sub-primeissuerspayasmuchattentiontocollectingdebtastomanagingrisk;theyimposeextrachargessuchasapplicationfees;andtheycaptheirpotentiallossesbylendingonlysmallamounts$500isatypicalcreditlimit. Allthisiseasiertodescribethantodoespeciallywhentheeconomyslows.Aftertheburstingofthetechnologybubblein2000severalsub-primecredit-cardprovidersfailed.Nowthereareonlyaround100ofwhichnineissuecreditcards.SurvivorssuchasMetrisandProvidiantwoofthebiggersub-primecardcompanieshavebecomechoosierabouttheircustomers’credithistories. Astheeconomyrecoveredsodidlenders’fortunes.Fitcharatingagencysaysthattheproportionofsub-primecredit-cardborrowerswhoaremorethan60daysinarrearsagoodpredictorofeventualdefaultisthelowestsinceNovember2001.ButwithAmericaninterestratesrisingagainsomeworryaboutanothersqueeze.AsFitch’sMichaelDeanpointsoutsub-primeborrowerstendtohavenotjusthigher-ratecreditcardsbutdearerautoloansandvariable-ratemortgagesaswell.Thatmakesariskybusinessevenriskier. Whichofthefollowingisnotmentionedasawaytoreducerisksofcreditcardindustry
Thetelecommunicationspharmaceuticalandairlineindustriesallhaveundergoneradicalchangesinrecentyears.Pharmaceuticalcompanieswhichoncesolddrugstothedoctorsthatdispensedthemswitchedtothesolution-sellingmethodandstarteddealingwithhealth-carecompanies.Andmanymajorairlinesconsolidatedatthesametimethatlow-costfirmslikeJetBlueenteredthemarket. Ineachoftheseindustriesthegamechangedandwithnewrulescamenewwaystowin.ThatisthepremiseofHarvardBusinessSchool’s"ChangingtheGame.NegotiationandCompetitiveDecisionMaking."Theprogramwhichcoversnotonlydeal-makingbutalsotopicsasdiverseasonlineauctionsandstrategicpartnerships"isforcompaniesthataregoingthroughfundamentalchangeinthewaythingsaredone"saysMaxBazermanprogramchairandprofessorofbusinessadministrationattheschool. ThisisnotaprogramfornovicessaysBazerman;mostparticipantshavealreadyattendedageneralnegotiationprogram.In"ChangingtheGame"participantslearntounderstandtheirthoughtprocessesregardingnegotiationtocomparerationalandintuitivedecision-makingstrategiesandtoidentifycommonmistakesmadebyeventhemostexperiencedprofessionals.Byfocusingoncompetitiveenvironmentstheprogramdrawsonsomeofthemostadvancedconceptsfromtheemergingareasofbehavioraleconomicsbehavioraldecisionresearchandbehavioralfinance. Participantsengageinsimulatednegotiationsthathighlightthetensionbetweencreatingandassessingvalueandlearnhowtothinkaboutbothsimultaneously.Thesoup-to-nutssimulationsencompasspreparationteambuildingnegotiatingandfeedbackaswellasthedevelopmentofaconceptualstructureforthinkingaboutnegotiationsmorerationally.Participantsthenapplythatstructureintheircritiquesofseverallarge-scalenegotiationcases.Ultimatelyparticipantsapplytheirnewly-honedanalyticskillstotheirowncompaniesandcritiqueofpastnegotiations. Negotiationscantakemanyformsofcourse.Bazermannotesthatauctionsarebecomingincreasinglycommon.Thankstoarenewedfocusondrivingclowncostsauctionshaveemergedasavaluablewayforbuyerstoexertmaximumleveragealthoughthecourseoffersadvicetosellersaswell.Hereagaincourseworkfocusesbothonanalysisofcasestudiesandonsimulationsthatgiveparticipantsachancetorolluptheirsleevesandputthemselvestothetest. "Max’sapproachismorepragmaticthanotherprogramsI’vetaken"saysGerryDullyseniorvicepresidentofglobalmarketingandlogisticsatMethanexaproducerofmethanolbasedinVancouver."LookingatmypriorexperienceIcouldseewhatmistakesImadeandI’mmoreconsciousofthemnow.ThecoursehadaprofoundimpactonhowI’vemodifiedmybehaviorinnegotiatingsituations. GerryDullyis
Manfirstappearedonearthabout2millionyearsago.Thenhewaslittlemorethanananimal;butearlymanhadabigadvantageovertheanimals.Hehadinhisbrainspecialgroupsofnervecellsnotpresentinanimalsthatenabledhimtoinventalanguageanduseittocommunicatewithhisfellowmen.46Thisabilitytospeakwasofgreatvaluebecauseitallowedmentoshareideasandtoplantogethersothattasksimpossibleforasinglepersoncouldbesuccessfullyundertakenbyintelligentteam-work.Speechalsoenabledideastobepassedonfromgenerationtogenerationsothatthestockofhumanknowledgeslowlyincreased. Itwasthisspecialabilitythatputmenfaraheadofotherlivingcreaturesinthestruggleforexistence.47Hemastereddarknessfirstwithdimlightsandlaterwithbrighterandbrighterlampsuntilhecannowmakeforhimselfsodazzlingalightwithanarclampthatlikethesunitistoostrongforhisnakedeyes. 48Manfoundthathisownmusclesweretooweakfortheworkwhichhewantedtodo;heexploredmanyotherformsofpoweruntilnowhehashishandsontheultimatesourceofphysicalenergythenuclearpower.Fromman’searliestdaystheflightofbirdshasraisedhiswonderanddesire.WhyshouldhenotflyastheydidThenhebegantoexperiment.Atlasthelearnthowtomaketherightmachinestocarryhimthroughtheair.Nowhecanflyfasterthansound.Alreadyhehasplansforconqueringspaceandaseriesofexperimentshasbeencompleted.49Itwillnotbelongnowbeforemantakesagiantstepawayfromhisplanetandvisitsthemoonlearningwhatitisliketohavenoweighttohisbodynoupwarddirectionandnodownward. Manalwaysawandererhastoovercomethedifficultyofadaptinghimselftodifferentclimates.50Fortunatelyinspiteofhavingnothickskinorwarmfurtoprotecthimheispeculiarlystrongcomparedwithotherlivingcreaturesmostofwhomareunabletolivefaroutsidetheregionthatsuitsthembest. 49Itwillnotbelongnowbeforemantakesagiantstepawayfromhisplanetandvisitsthemoonlearningwhatitisliketohavenoweighttohisbodynoupwarddirectionandnodownward.
Manfirstappearedonearthabout2millionyearsago.Thenhewaslittlemorethanananimal;butearlymanhadabigadvantageovertheanimals.Hehadinhisbrainspecialgroupsofnervecellsnotpresentinanimalsthatenabledhimtoinventalanguageanduseittocommunicatewithhisfellowmen.46Thisabilitytospeakwasofgreatvaluebecauseitallowedmentoshareideasandtoplantogethersothattasksimpossibleforasinglepersoncouldbesuccessfullyundertakenbyintelligentteam-work.Speechalsoenabledideastobepassedonfromgenerationtogenerationsothatthestockofhumanknowledgeslowlyincreased. Itwasthisspecialabilitythatputmenfaraheadofotherlivingcreaturesinthestruggleforexistence.47Hemastereddarknessfirstwithdimlightsandlaterwithbrighterandbrighterlampsuntilhecannowmakeforhimselfsodazzlingalightwithanarclampthatlikethesunitistoostrongforhisnakedeyes. 48Manfoundthathisownmusclesweretooweakfortheworkwhichhewantedtodo;heexploredmanyotherformsofpoweruntilnowhehashishandsontheultimatesourceofphysicalenergythenuclearpower.Fromman’searliestdaystheflightofbirdshasraisedhiswonderanddesire.WhyshouldhenotflyastheydidThenhebegantoexperiment.Atlasthelearnthowtomaketherightmachinestocarryhimthroughtheair.Nowhecanflyfasterthansound.Alreadyhehasplansforconqueringspaceandaseriesofexperimentshasbeencompleted.49Itwillnotbelongnowbeforemantakesagiantstepawayfromhisplanetandvisitsthemoonlearningwhatitisliketohavenoweighttohisbodynoupwarddirectionandnodownward. Manalwaysawandererhastoovercomethedifficultyofadaptinghimselftodifferentclimates.50Fortunatelyinspiteofhavingnothickskinorwarmfurtoprotecthimheispeculiarlystrongcomparedwithotherlivingcreaturesmostofwhomareunabletolivefaroutsidetheregionthatsuitsthembest. 47Hemastereddarknessfirstwithdimlightsandlaterwithbrighterandbrighterlampsuntilhecannowmakeforhimselfsodazzlingalightwithanarclampthatlikethesunitistoostrongforhisnakedeyes.
Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethatyouareflyinghigherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptopthinnerthanabrown-paperenvelopeoryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue. Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuseswarriorsentrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprintingpressstudioandtheatrepaintbrushandgallerypianoandradiothemailaswellasthemailcarrier.41 Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevicethefirstmediamachinethatservesasthemodeofproductionmeansofdistributionsiteofreceptionandplaceofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury’sculturemachine. Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputerwemustalsotreadwithcaution.42Icallitasecretwarfortworeasons.Firstmostpeopledonotrealisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Secondthemajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing. Allanimalsdownloadbutonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yetforthemostparttheanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods—paintingssculptureandarchitecture—andsuperfluousexperiences—musicliteraturereligionandphilosophy.43 Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachinesmostpeoplearestillstuckindownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmediaapyramidofproductionremainswithasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterialaslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontentandahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.44 Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton. 45 WhatcountsasmeaningfuluploadingMydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof"stickiness"—creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere. [A]Ofcourseitispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureandultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskillsbutfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity. [B]Applicationsliketumblr.comwhichallowuserstocombinepictureswordsandothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethemhavethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusingentertainingandenlighteningothers. [C]Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday. [D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloadinganduploading—betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation--whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine. [E]ThechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers. [F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepasthalf-centurymuchoftheworld’smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium—television—andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading. [G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflowtoencouragethoughtfuldownloadingandevenmoreimportantlymeaningfuluploading. 43
In1880SirJoshuaWaddiloveaVictorianphilanthropistfoundedProvidentFinancialtoprovideaffordableloanstoworking-classfamiliesinandaroundBradfordinnorthernEngland.ThismonthhiscompanynowoneofBritain’sleadingprovidersof"homecredit"—smallshort-termunsecuredloans—beganthenationwiderolloutofVanquisacreditcardaimedatpeoplethatmainstreamlendersshun.Thecardoffersupto￡200$380ofcreditataprice:fortheriskiestcustomerstheannualinterestratewillbe69%. Providentsaysthatthetypicalinterestrateiscloserto50%andthatitchargesnofeesforlatepaymentsorbreachingcreditlimits.Stillthatistripletherateonregularcreditcardsandfarabovethe30%chargedbystorecards.AndtheVanquiscardisbeinglaunchedjustwhenBritain’spoliticiansandmediaarefullofworryaboutsoaringconsumerdebt.Lastmonthamantookhisownlifeafterrunningupdebtsof￡130000on22differentcreditcards. Creditcardsfor"sub-prime"borrowersastheindustrydelicatelycallsthosewithpoorcreditrecordsarenewinBritainbuthavebeencommoninAmericaforawhile.Lendersbeganissuingthemwhentheprimemarketbecamesaturatedpromptingthemtolookfornewsourcesofprofit.EveninAmericathesub-primemarkethasplentyofroomforgrowth.DavidRobertsonoftheNilsonReportatrademagazinereckonsthatoutstandingsub-primecredit-carddebtaccountsforonly3%ofthe$597billionthatAmericansoweonplastic.Thesub-primesectorgrewby7.9%lastyearcomparedwithonly2.6%fortheindustryasawhole. Youmightwonderthoughhowcompaniescanmakemoneyfromlendingtocustomerstheyknowtobebadrisks—oratanyratehowtheycandoitlegitimately.Whereasdelinquenciesinthecredit-cardindustryasawholearearound4%-5%thoseinthesub-primemarketarealmosttwiceashighandcanreach15%inhardtimes. Obviouslyissuerschargehigherinterestratestocompensatethemforthehigherriskofnotbeingrepaid.Andallacrossthecredit-cardindustrytheassessmentandpricingofriskshasbeengettingmoreandmorerefinedthankslargelytoadvancesintechnologyanddataprocessing.Companiesalsousesophisticatedcomputerprogramstotrackslowerpaymentorothersignsofincreasedrisk.Sub-primeissuerspayasmuchattentiontocollectingdebtastomanagingrisk;theyimposeextrachargessuchasapplicationfees;andtheycaptheirpotentiallossesbylendingonlysmallamounts$500isatypicalcreditlimit. Allthisiseasiertodescribethantodoespeciallywhentheeconomyslows.Aftertheburstingofthetechnologybubblein2000severalsub-primecredit-cardprovidersfailed.Nowthereareonlyaround100ofwhichnineissuecreditcards.SurvivorssuchasMetrisandProvidiantwoofthebiggersub-primecardcompanieshavebecomechoosierabouttheircustomers’credithistories. Astheeconomyrecoveredsodidlenders’fortunes.Fitcharatingagencysaysthattheproportionofsub-primecredit-cardborrowerswhoaremorethan60daysinarrearsagoodpredictorofeventualdefaultisthelowestsinceNovember2001.ButwithAmericaninterestratesrisingagainsomeworryaboutanothersqueeze.AsFitch’sMichaelDeanpointsoutsub-primeborrowerstendtohavenotjusthigher-ratecreditcardsbutdearerautoloansandvariable-ratemortgagesaswell.Thatmakesariskybusinessevenriskier. Vanquisisdifferentfromregularcardsinthat
Theroadtocontrollingpopulationgrowthinthe20thcenturywaspavedwithgoodintentionsandunpleasantpoliciesthatdidnotworkanewbookarguesanhistorianwhogrewupastheyoungestofeightchildrenmightwellbeexpectedtoapproachthequestionofwhethertheworldisoverpopulatedfromanunusualangle.MatthewConnellyaprofessoratColumbiaUniversitydedicateshisstudyofthosewhothoughttheplanethadtoomanypeopleandtriedtodosomethingaboutittohisparents"forhavingsomanychildren". YetheassuresthereaderitWasnothispersonalexperienceoflargefamiliesthatdrewhimtothesubject.Mr.Connelly’smentorPaulKennedyofYaleUniversitybelieveditwasnecessarytolookbeyondgreat-powerrivalriestounderstandthepost-cold-warera.In1994thepairwroteanarticleforAtlanticMouthlyarguingthatpopulationgrowthinpoorcountriesincreasingawarenessofglobaleconomicinequalityandtheprospectofmassmigrationcouldleadtoclashesbetweentheWestand"therest". WhenyearslaterMr.Connellybeganhisownbookonpopulationgrowthhestillthoughtofthetopicasawaytoofferabroaderunderstandingofworldsecurity.Heendedupwritingaverydifferent-andangry-bookoneaboutpeoplewholookedatthehumanracereproducingitselfandsawwhatagardenerseeswhenlookingataprizeplant:somethingtobeencouragedtobloominsomeplacesandprunedinothers. Astheworldpopulationsoaredthepopulationcontrollerscametobelievetheywerefightingawarandtherewouldbecollateraldamage.Millionsofdeviceswereexportedtopoorcountriesalthoughtheywereknowntocauseinfectionsandsterility."Perhapstheindividualpatientisexpendableinthegeneralschemeofthings"saidaparticipantataconferenceonthedevicesorganizedin1962bythePopulationCouncilaresearchinstitutefoundedbyJohn[D]Rockefeller"particularlyiftheinfectionsheacquiresissterilizingbutnotlethal." Furthermorestatisticalestimatessuggestthatasmuchas90%ofthereasonthatwomenhavefamiliesofaparticularsizeissimplybecausethatisthenumberofchildrentheywant.Wherewomengainededucationandrightsbirthratesfell.Aswithreproductionitselfforpeopletobecomelessfruitfuldesiremustprecedeperformance. WhichoneofthefollowingisNOTtrueaboutMatthewConnelly
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanzPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 13
Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethatyouareflyinghigherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptopthinnerthanabrown-paperenvelopeoryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue. Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuseswarriorsentrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprintingpressstudioandtheatrepaintbrushandgallerypianoandradiothemailaswellasthemailcarrier.41 Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevicethefirstmediamachinethatservesasthemodeofproductionmeansofdistributionsiteofreceptionandplaceofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury’sculturemachine. Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputerwemustalsotreadwithcaution.42Icallitasecretwarfortworeasons.Firstmostpeopledonotrealisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Secondthemajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing. Allanimalsdownloadbutonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yetforthemostparttheanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods—paintingssculptureandarchitecture—andsuperfluousexperiences—musicliteraturereligionandphilosophy.43 Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachinesmostpeoplearestillstuckindownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmediaapyramidofproductionremainswithasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterialaslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontentandahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.44 Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton. 45 WhatcountsasmeaningfuluploadingMydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof"stickiness"—creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere. [A]Ofcourseitispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureandultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskillsbutfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity. [B]Applicationsliketumblr.comwhichallowuserstocombinepictureswordsandothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethemhavethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusingentertainingandenlighteningothers. [C]Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday. [D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloadinganduploading—betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation--whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine. [E]ThechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers. [F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepasthalf-centurymuchoftheworld’smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium—television—andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading. [G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflowtoencouragethoughtfuldownloadingandevenmoreimportantlymeaningfuluploading. 41
Theroadtocontrollingpopulationgrowthinthe20thcenturywaspavedwithgoodintentionsandunpleasantpoliciesthatdidnotworkanewbookarguesanhistorianwhogrewupastheyoungestofeightchildrenmightwellbeexpectedtoapproachthequestionofwhethertheworldisoverpopulatedfromanunusualangle.MatthewConnellyaprofessoratColumbiaUniversitydedicateshisstudyofthosewhothoughttheplanethadtoomanypeopleandtriedtodosomethingaboutittohisparents"forhavingsomanychildren". YetheassuresthereaderitWasnothispersonalexperienceoflargefamiliesthatdrewhimtothesubject.Mr.Connelly’smentorPaulKennedyofYaleUniversitybelieveditwasnecessarytolookbeyondgreat-powerrivalriestounderstandthepost-cold-warera.In1994thepairwroteanarticleforAtlanticMouthlyarguingthatpopulationgrowthinpoorcountriesincreasingawarenessofglobaleconomicinequalityandtheprospectofmassmigrationcouldleadtoclashesbetweentheWestand"therest". WhenyearslaterMr.Connellybeganhisownbookonpopulationgrowthhestillthoughtofthetopicasawaytoofferabroaderunderstandingofworldsecurity.Heendedupwritingaverydifferent-andangry-bookoneaboutpeoplewholookedatthehumanracereproducingitselfandsawwhatagardenerseeswhenlookingataprizeplant:somethingtobeencouragedtobloominsomeplacesandprunedinothers. Astheworldpopulationsoaredthepopulationcontrollerscametobelievetheywerefightingawarandtherewouldbecollateraldamage.Millionsofdeviceswereexportedtopoorcountriesalthoughtheywereknowntocauseinfectionsandsterility."Perhapstheindividualpatientisexpendableinthegeneralschemeofthings"saidaparticipantataconferenceonthedevicesorganizedin1962bythePopulationCouncilaresearchinstitutefoundedbyJohn[D]Rockefeller"particularlyiftheinfectionsheacquiresissterilizingbutnotlethal." Furthermorestatisticalestimatessuggestthatasmuchas90%ofthereasonthatwomenhavefamiliesofaparticularsizeissimplybecausethatisthenumberofchildrentheywant.Wherewomengainededucationandrightsbirthratesfell.Aswithreproductionitselfforpeopletobecomelessfruitfuldesiremustprecedeperformance. Accordingtothepassagewhatmightbeabetterwaytocontrolpopulation
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanzPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 7
Theroadtocontrollingpopulationgrowthinthe20thcenturywaspavedwithgoodintentionsandunpleasantpoliciesthatdidnotworkanewbookarguesanhistorianwhogrewupastheyoungestofeightchildrenmightwellbeexpectedtoapproachthequestionofwhethertheworldisoverpopulatedfromanunusualangle.MatthewConnellyaprofessoratColumbiaUniversitydedicateshisstudyofthosewhothoughttheplanethadtoomanypeopleandtriedtodosomethingaboutittohisparents"forhavingsomanychildren". YetheassuresthereaderitWasnothispersonalexperienceoflargefamiliesthatdrewhimtothesubject.Mr.Connelly’smentorPaulKennedyofYaleUniversitybelieveditwasnecessarytolookbeyondgreat-powerrivalriestounderstandthepost-cold-warera.In1994thepairwroteanarticleforAtlanticMouthlyarguingthatpopulationgrowthinpoorcountriesincreasingawarenessofglobaleconomicinequalityandtheprospectofmassmigrationcouldleadtoclashesbetweentheWestand"therest". WhenyearslaterMr.Connellybeganhisownbookonpopulationgrowthhestillthoughtofthetopicasawaytoofferabroaderunderstandingofworldsecurity.Heendedupwritingaverydifferent-andangry-bookoneaboutpeoplewholookedatthehumanracereproducingitselfandsawwhatagardenerseeswhenlookingataprizeplant:somethingtobeencouragedtobloominsomeplacesandprunedinothers. Astheworldpopulationsoaredthepopulationcontrollerscametobelievetheywerefightingawarandtherewouldbecollateraldamage.Millionsofdeviceswereexportedtopoorcountriesalthoughtheywereknowntocauseinfectionsandsterility."Perhapstheindividualpatientisexpendableinthegeneralschemeofthings"saidaparticipantataconferenceonthedevicesorganizedin1962bythePopulationCouncilaresearchinstitutefoundedbyJohn[D]Rockefeller"particularlyiftheinfectionsheacquiresissterilizingbutnotlethal." Furthermorestatisticalestimatessuggestthatasmuchas90%ofthereasonthatwomenhavefamiliesofaparticularsizeissimplybecausethatisthenumberofchildrentheywant.Wherewomengainededucationandrightsbirthratesfell.Aswithreproductionitselfforpeopletobecomelessfruitfuldesiremustprecedeperformance. ThewordprunedLine5Para.3mostprobablymeans
Goodlooksthevideo-gamesindustryisdiscoveringwillgetyouonlysofar.Thegraphicsonamoderngamemayfaroutstripthepixellatedblobsofthe1980sbutthereismoretoagoodgamethaneyecandy.Photo-realisticgraphicsmakethelackofauthenticityofotheraspectsofgameplaymoreapparent.Itisnotenoughforgamecharacterstolookbetter—theirbehaviourmustalsobemoresophisticatedsayresearchersworkingattheinterfacebetweengamingandartificialintelligenceAI. Today’sgamesmaylookbetterbutthegameplayis"basicallythesame"asitwasafewyearsagosaysMichaelMateasthefounderoftheExperimentalGameLabattheGeorgiaInstituteofTechnology.AIhesuggestsoffersan"untappedfrontier"ofnewpossibilities."Wearetoppingoutonthegraphicssowhat’sgoingtobethenextthingthatimprovesgame-play"asksJohnLairddirectoroftheAIlabattheUniversityofMichigan.ImprovedAIisabigpartoftheanswerhesays.Thoseintheindustryagree.Thehigh-definitiongraphicspossibleonnext-generationgamesconsolessuchasMicrosoft’sXbox360areraisingexpectationsacrosstheboardsaysNeilYoungofElectronicArtstheworld’sbiggestgamespublisher."Youhavetohavehigh-resolutionmodelswhichrequireshigh-resolutionanimation"hesays"sonowIexpecthigh-resolutionbehaviour." RepresentativesfromindustryandacademiawillconvergeinMarinadelReyCalifornialaterthismonthforthesecondannualArtificialIntelligenceandInteractiveDigitalEntertainmentAIIDEconference.TheaimsaysDrLairdwhowillchairtheeventistoincreasethetrafficofpeopleandideasbetweenthetwospheres."GameshavebeenveryimportanttoAIthroughtheyears"henotes.AlanTuringoneofthepioneersofcomputinginthe1940swroteasimplechess-playingprogrambeforetherewereanycomputerstoruniton;healsoproposedtheTuringtestaquestion-and-answergamethatisayardstickformachineintelligence.EvensoAIresearchandvideogamesexistedinseparateworldsuntilrecently.TheAItechniquesusedingameswereverysimplisticfromanacademicperspectivesaysDr.MateaswhileAIresearcherswereinturncluelessaboutmoderngames.Buthesays"bothsidesarelearningandarenowmuchcloser." Considerforexamplethesoftwarethatcontrolsanenemyinafirst-personshooterFPS—agameinwhichtheplayerviewstheworldalongthebarrelofagun.Thebehaviourofenemiesusedtobepre-scripted:waituntiltheplayerisnearbypopupfrombehindaboxfireweaponandthenrollandhidebehindanotherboxforexample.Butsomegamesnowusefarmoreadvanced"planningsystems"importedfromacademia."Insteadofscriptsandhand-codedbehaviourtheAImonstersinanFPScanreasonfromfirstprinciples"saysDr.Mateas.Theycanforexampleworkoutwhethertheplayercanseethemornotseekoutcoverwheninjuredandsoon."Ratherthanjustmovingbetweenpredefinedspotsthecharactersinawargamecandynamicallyshiftdependingonwhat’shappening"saysFionaSperryofElectronicArts. Iftheindustryisborrowingideasfromacademiatheoppositeisalsotrue.Commercialgamessuchas"UnrealTournament"whichcanbeeasilymodifiedorscriptedarebeingadoptedasresearchtoolsinuniversitiessaysDr.Laird.Suchtoolsprovideflexibleenvironmentsforexperimentsandalsomeanthatstudentsendupwithtransferableskills. ButthegreatestpotentialliesincombiningresearchwithgamedevelopmentarguesDr.Mateas."Onlybywrestlingwithrealcontentarethetechnicalproblemsrevealedandonlybywrestlingwithtechnologydoesitgiveyouinsightintowhatnewkindsofcontentarepossible"hesays. ThelastsentencesonowIexpecthigh-resolutionbehaviorinthesecondparagraphmostprobablymeans
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanzPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 5
KingRichardIIIwasamonster.HepoisonedhiswifestolethethronefromhistwoyoungnephewsandorderedthemtobesmotheredintheTowerofLondon.RichardwasasortofAntichristtheKing--"thatbottledspiderthatpoisonousbunchbackedtoad." AnywaythatwasShakespeare’sversion.Shakespearedidwhattheplaywrightdoes:heturnedhistoryintoavividarticulateorganizeddream-repeatablenightly.Heputthecrouchbackonstageandsoldtickets. AndwhoWouldsaythattherealRichardknowntofamilyandfriendswasnotidenticaltoShakespeare’smemorablyloathsomecreationTheactualRichardwentdimmingintothepastandvanished.Whenalltheeye-witnessesaregonetheartist’simaginationbeginstotwist. VariationsontheKingRichardEffectareatworkinOliverStone’sJFK.RichardIIIwasartbutitwaspropagandatoo.ShakespearetookthedetailsofhisplotfromTudorhistorianswhowantedtoblackenRichard’sname.SeveralcenturiespassedbeforeotherhistoriansbegantowriteaboutRichard’svirtuesandsuggestthathemayhavebeenavictimofTudormaliceandwhatisthecleverestconspiracyofall:art. JFKisalongandpowerfulharangueaboutthedeathoftheman--Stonekeepscalling"theslainyoungking.’WhataretherulesofStone’sgameIsStonefunctioningascommercialentertainerPropagandistDocumentaryfilmmakerHistorianJournalistFantasistSensationalistCrazyconspiracy-mongerLoneherocrusadingforthetruthagainstacorruptEstablishmentAnswer:someoftheabove. ThefirstsuperficialeffectofJFKistoraiseangrylittlescrupleslikeweltsintheconscience.Wouldn’titbeabsurdifagenerationofyoungerAmericanswithnomemoryof1963weretoformtheirideasaboutJohnKennedy’sassassinationfromOliverStone’sreportofitButworsethingshavehappened--includingperhapstheWarrenCommissionreport StoneusesasuspectmixedartformandJFKraisesthefamiliarethicalandhistoricalproblemsofdocudrama.ButsowhatArtistshavealwaysusedpubliceventsasrawmaterialhavetakenhistoryintotheirimaginationsandtransformedit.ThefallofTroyvanishedintotheIliad.TheBattleofBorodinofounditsmostmemorablepermanenceinTolstoy’simaginingofitinWarandPeace. Especiallyinaworldofinsatiableelectronicstorytellingrealhistoryprocreatesendlesslyconjuringnewversionsofitself.Publiclifehasbecomeametaphysicalbreederoffictions.Watergatebecameanalmostcontinuoustelevisionminiseries--althoughitisinterestingthatthemovieofWoodwardandBernstein’sAllThePresident’sMenstayedclosetotheknownfactsandunlikeJFKdidnotvalidatedarkconjecture. ThewordharanguePara.5connotes
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanzPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 9
What’syourearliestchildhoodmemoryCanyourememberlearningtowalkOrtalkThefirsttimeyouheardthunderorwatchedatelevisionprogramAdultsseldom1eventsmuchearlierthantheyearorsobeforeenteringschool2childrenyoungerthanthreeorfour3retainanyspecificpersonalexperiences. Avarietyofexplanationshavebeen4bypsychologistsforthis"childhoodamnesia".Onearguesthatthehippo-campus;theregionofthebrainwhichis5forformingmemoriesdoesnotmatureuntilabouttheageoftwo.Butthemostpopulartheory6thatsinceadultsdon’tthinklikechildrentheycannot7childhoodmemories.Adultsthinkinwordsandtheirlifememoriesarelikestoriesor8oneeventfollows9asinanovelorfilm.Butwhentheysearchthroughtheirmental10forearlychildhoodmemoriestoaddtothisverballifestorytheydon’tfindanythatfitthe11.It’sliketryingtofindaChinesewordinanEnglishdictionary. NowpsychologistAnnetteSimmsoftheNewYorkStateUniversityoffersanew12forchildhoodamnesia.Shearguesthattheresimplyaren’tanyearlychildhoodmemoriesto13.AccordingtoDr.Simmschildrenneedtolearntousesomeoneelse’sspokendescriptionoftheirpersonal14inordertoturntheirownshort-termquicklyforgotten15ofthemintolong-termmemories.Inother16childrenhavetotalkabouttheirexperiencesandhearotherstalkabout17--Mothertalkingabouttheafternoon18lookingforseashellsatthebeachorDadaskingthemabouttheirdayatOceanzPark.Withoutthis19reinforcementsaysDr.Simmschildrencannotform20memoriesoftheirpersonalexperiences. Notes:childhoodamnesia儿童失忆症 15
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