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The American screen has long been a smoky place, at least since 1942’s Now, Voyager, in which Bet...
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46Populararthasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunkwithpolesbeingclearenoughbutthemiddletendingtoblur.TheHollywoodWesternofthe1930’sforexamplehaselementsoffolklorebutisclosertojunkthantohighartorfolkart.Therecanbegreattrashjustasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicalsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopularartneveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahmshoweverusedelementsofpopularmusic—folkthemes—inworksclearlyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre—bourgeoismelodramasettomusicanaccuratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryopera—andwithoutalteringitsfundamentalnaturetransmuteditintohighart.47Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre.AsanexampleofsuchatransmutationconsiderwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryopera.48Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine—usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunrestrainedbyclass—iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityoftheleadersofthecivilians.Verditransformsthisnaiveandunlikeformulationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitalitymusicmoresubtlethanitseemsatfirsthearing.Therearescenesandariasthatstillsoundlikecallstoarmsandwereclearlyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.Suchpieceslendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiledpoliticalmessageoftheseoperasandcallupfeelingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitself.OrconsiderVerdi’streatmentofcharacter.49BeforeVerditherewererarelyanycharactersatallinmusicaldramaonlyaseriesofsituationswhichallowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionalstate.Anyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayalintheseoperasismisplacedingenuity.Theonlycoherencewasthesinger’svocaltechnique:whenthecastchangednewariaswerealmostalwayssubstitutedgenerallyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi’scharactersontheotherhandhavegenuineconsistencyandintegrityevenifinmanycasestheconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmelodrama.Theintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:50oncehehadbecomeestablishedVerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorallowalterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanoperaitwasonlyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness.
Themarveloustelephoneandtelevisionnetworkthathasnowenmeshedthewholeworldmakingallmenneighborscannotbeextendedintospace.Itwillneverbepossibletoconversewithanyoneonanotherplanet.Evenwithtoday’sradioequipmentthemessageswilltakeminutes—sometimeshours—ontheirjourneybecauseradioandlightwavestravelatthesamelimitedspeedof186000milesasecond. TwentyyearsfromnowyouwillbeabletolistentoafriendonMarsbutthewordsyouhearwillhavelefthismouthatleastthreeminutesearlierandyourreplywilltakeacorrespondingtimetoreachhim.Insuchcircumstancesanexchangeofverbalmessagesispossible—butnotaconversation. Toaculturewhichhascometotakeinstantaneouscommunicationforgrantedaspartoftheverystructureofcivilizedlifethis"timebarrier"mayhaveaprofoundpsychologicalimpact.Itwillbeaperpetualreminderofuniversallawsandlimitationsagainstwhichnotallourtechnologycaneverprevail.Foritseemsascertainasanythingcanbethatnosignal--stilllessanymaterialobject—canevertravelfasterthanlight. Thevelocityoflightistheultimatespeedlimitbeingpartoftheverystructureofspaceandtime.Withinthenarrowconfinesofthesolarsystemitwillnothandicapustooseverely.Attheworstthesewillamounttotwentyhours—thetimeittakesaradiosignaltospantheorbitofPlutotheouter-mostplanet. Itiswhenwemoveoutbeyondtheconfinesofthesolarsystemthatwecomefacetofacewithanaltogetherneworderofcosmicreality.Eventodaymanyotherwiseeducatedmen—likethosesavageswhocancounttothreebutlumptogetherallnumbersbeyondfour—cannotgrasptheprofounddistinctionbetweensolarandstellarspace.Thefirstisthespaceenclosingourneighboringworldstheplanets;thesecondisthatwhichembracesthosedistantsunsthestarsanditisliterallymillionsoftimesgreater.Thereisnosuchabruptchangeofscaleintheterrestrialaffairs. Manyconservativescientistsappalledbythesecosmicgulfshavedeniedthattheycaneverbecrossed.Somepeopleneverlearn;thosewhosixtyyearsagoscoffedatthepossibilityofflightandtenyearsagolaughedattheideaoftraveltotheplanetsarenowquitesurethatthestarswillalwaysbebeyondourreach.Andagaintheyarewrongfortheyhavefailedtograspthegreatlessonofourage—thatifsomethingispossibleintheoryandnofundamentalscientificlawsopposeitsrealizationthensoonerorlateritwillbeachieved. Onedayweshalldiscoverareallyefficientmeansofpropellingourspacevehicles.Everytechnicaldeviceisalwaysdevelopedtoitslimitandtheultimatespeedforspaceshipsisthevelocityoflight.Theywillneverreachthatgoalbuttheywillgetverynearit.Andthentheneareststarwillbelessthanfiveyearsvoyagingfromtheearth. Thefactthatitwillneverbepossibletoconversewithsomeoneonanotherplanetshowsthat
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 5
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 11
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 9
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 15
Peoplehavegoodreasontocareaboutthewelfareofanimals.EversincetheEnlightenmenttheirtreatmenthasbeenseenasameasureofmankind’shumanity.ItisnocoincidencethatWilliamWilberforceandSirThomasFoxwellBuxtontwoleadersofthemovementtoabolishtheslavetradehelpedfoundtheRoyalSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimalsinthe1820s.Anincreasingnumberofpeoplegofurther:mankindhasadutynottocausepaintoanimalsthathavethecapacitytosuffer.Bothviewshaveledpeoplegraduallytoextendtreatmentoncereservedformankindtootherspecies. Butwheneverydaylivesaremeasuredagainstsuchprinciplestheyarefraughtwithcontradictions.Thosewhowouldneverdreamofcagingtheircatsanddogsguzzlebaconandeggsfromghastlyfactoryfarms.Theabattoirandthecattletruckaresecretplacessafelyhiddenfromthemeat-eater’sgazeandthechild’sstorybook.Plentyofpeoplewhodenouncethefur-trademuchofwhichisfromfarmedanimalsquitehappilywearleatheralsofromfarmedanimals. Perhapstheinconsistencyisunderstandable.Afterhundredsofyearsofthinkingaboutitpeoplecannotagreeonasystemofrightsforeachothersothegroundisboundtogetshakierstillwhenanimalsareincluded.Thetroubleisthatconfusionandcontradictionopenthewaytotheextremist.Andbecausescientificresearchisremotefrommostpeople’slivesitisparticularlyvulnerabletotheircampaigns. Infactscienceshouldbethelasttargetwhereveryoudrawtheboundariesofanimalwelfare.Foronethingthereisrarelyanalternativetousinganimalsinresearch.Iftherewerescientistswouldgraspitbecauseanimalresearchisexpensiveandencircledbyregulations.Animalresearchisalsoforahigherpurposethanafullbellyoranelegantoutfit.Theworldneedsnewmedicinesandsurgicalproceduresjustasitneedstheunknowablefruitsofpureresearch. Andscienceisbyandlargekindtoitsanimals.ThecoupleofmillionmainlyratsandmicethatdieinBritain’slaboratoriesarefarbetterlooked-afterandfarmorehumanelykilledthanthebillionorsomainlychickensonBritain’sfarms.IndeedifDarleyOaksmakesupitslossofguineapigswithturkeysordairycowsyoucanbefairlysureanimalwelfareinBritainhasjusttakenastepbackwards. Thefirstparagraphiswrittento
Peoplehavegoodreasontocareaboutthewelfareofanimals.EversincetheEnlightenmenttheirtreatmenthasbeenseenasameasureofmankind’shumanity.ItisnocoincidencethatWilliamWilberforceandSirThomasFoxwellBuxtontwoleadersofthemovementtoabolishtheslavetradehelpedfoundtheRoyalSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimalsinthe1820s.Anincreasingnumberofpeoplegofurther:mankindhasadutynottocausepaintoanimalsthathavethecapacitytosuffer.Bothviewshaveledpeoplegraduallytoextendtreatmentoncereservedformankindtootherspecies. Butwheneverydaylivesaremeasuredagainstsuchprinciplestheyarefraughtwithcontradictions.Thosewhowouldneverdreamofcagingtheircatsanddogsguzzlebaconandeggsfromghastlyfactoryfarms.Theabattoirandthecattletruckaresecretplacessafelyhiddenfromthemeat-eater’sgazeandthechild’sstorybook.Plentyofpeoplewhodenouncethefur-trademuchofwhichisfromfarmedanimalsquitehappilywearleatheralsofromfarmedanimals. Perhapstheinconsistencyisunderstandable.Afterhundredsofyearsofthinkingaboutitpeoplecannotagreeonasystemofrightsforeachothersothegroundisboundtogetshakierstillwhenanimalsareincluded.Thetroubleisthatconfusionandcontradictionopenthewaytotheextremist.Andbecausescientificresearchisremotefrommostpeople’slivesitisparticularlyvulnerabletotheircampaigns. Infactscienceshouldbethelasttargetwhereveryoudrawtheboundariesofanimalwelfare.Foronethingthereisrarelyanalternativetousinganimalsinresearch.Iftherewerescientistswouldgraspitbecauseanimalresearchisexpensiveandencircledbyregulations.Animalresearchisalsoforahigherpurposethanafullbellyoranelegantoutfit.Theworldneedsnewmedicinesandsurgicalproceduresjustasitneedstheunknowablefruitsofpureresearch. Andscienceisbyandlargekindtoitsanimals.ThecoupleofmillionmainlyratsandmicethatdieinBritain’slaboratoriesarefarbetterlooked-afterandfarmorehumanelykilledthanthebillionorsomainlychickensonBritain’sfarms.IndeedifDarleyOaksmakesupitslossofguineapigswithturkeysordairycowsyoucanbefairlysureanimalwelfareinBritainhasjusttakenastepbackwards. Itcanbeinferredfromthethirdparagraphthat
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 13
46Populararthasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunkwithpolesbeingclearenoughbutthemiddletendingtoblur.TheHollywoodWesternofthe1930’sforexamplehaselementsoffolklorebutisclosertojunkthantohighartorfolkart.Therecanbegreattrashjustasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicalsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopularartneveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahmshoweverusedelementsofpopularmusic—folkthemes—inworksclearlyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre—bourgeoismelodramasettomusicanaccuratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryopera—andwithoutalteringitsfundamentalnaturetransmuteditintohighart.47Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre.AsanexampleofsuchatransmutationconsiderwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryopera.48Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine—usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunrestrainedbyclass—iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityoftheleadersofthecivilians.Verditransformsthisnaiveandunlikeformulationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitalitymusicmoresubtlethanitseemsatfirsthearing.Therearescenesandariasthatstillsoundlikecallstoarmsandwereclearlyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.Suchpieceslendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiledpoliticalmessageoftheseoperasandcallupfeelingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitself.OrconsiderVerdi’streatmentofcharacter.49BeforeVerditherewererarelyanycharactersatallinmusicaldramaonlyaseriesofsituationswhichallowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionalstate.Anyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayalintheseoperasismisplacedingenuity.Theonlycoherencewasthesinger’svocaltechnique:whenthecastchangednewariaswerealmostalwayssubstitutedgenerallyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi’scharactersontheotherhandhavegenuineconsistencyandintegrityevenifinmanycasestheconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmelodrama.Theintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:50oncehehadbecomeestablishedVerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorallowalterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanoperaitwasonlyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness.
Itwasthebestoftimesordependingonyourpoliticalandphilosophicaloutlookoneofthefoulestandmostdepraved.Rebellionseemedtobeleapingfromcitytocitycontinenttocontinentbysomefieryprocessofcontagion.RadicalstudentsfilledthestreetsofMexicocityBerlinTokyoPrague.IntheU.S.ChicagoswirledintonearanarchyascopsbattledantiwardemonstratorsgatheredattheDemocraticConvention.AndeverywherefromAmsterdamtoHaight-Ashburyagenerationwasgettinghighactingup. Soclearlyitwastheyearfromhell--acollective"diveintoextensivesocialandpersonaldysfunction"astheWallStreetJournaleditorializedrecently.Ordependingagainonyouroutlookaglobalbreakthroughforthehumanspirit.Onthisthe25thanniversaryof1968probablytheonlythingwecanallagreeonisthat’68marksthebeginningofthe"culturewars"whichhavedividedAmericaeversince. Boththesidesofthe"culturewars"ofthe’80sand’90stookforminthecriticalyearof’68.Thekeyissuesaredifferentnow--abortionandgayrightsforexampleasopposedtoVietnamandracism--buttheunderlyingthemesstillechotheclashesof’68:Diversityvs.conformitytraditionvs.iconoclasmself-expressionvs.deferencetonorms."Questionauthority"inotherwordsvs."Fatherknowsbest." The25thanniversaryof’68isagoodtimetoreflectcalmlyandphilosophicallyonthesedeepunderlyingchoices.Ononehandweknowthatanti-authoritarianismforitsownsakeeasilydegeneratesintoarudeandunfocuseddefiance:RevolutionasAbbieHoffmanputit"forthehellofit."Certainly’68haditswretchedexcessesaswellasitsmomentsofglory:thepersonaltragedyoflivesundonebydrugsandsextheheavycostofriotsanddestruction.Onemighteasilyconcludethattheancientrulesandhierarchiesarethereforareason--they’reworkedmoreorlessforuntoldmillenniumssothere’snopointinchangingthemnow. Butit’salsotruethatwhat"worked"forthousandsofyearsmaynotbethebestwayofdoingthings.Democracyafterallwasoneeafar-outsubversivenotioncondemnedbykingsandpriests.Inourowncountryittookallkindsofhell-raisingincludingawartogetacrossthesimplenotionthatnopersonismorallyentitledtoownanother.Onegeneration’shallowedtradition--slaveryorthedivinerightofkings--maybeanothergeneration’sobjectlessoninhumanfolly. ’68wasonemoreawkwardstumblinghalf-stepforwardinwhatDutschkecalledthe"longmarch"towardhumanfreedom.Actuallyithelpedinspiretheworldwidefeministmovement. Thewriter’sattitudetowardstheissueis
Abiteofacookiecontainingpeanutscouldcausetheairwaytoconstrictfatally.Sharingatoywithanotherchildwhohadearliereatenapeanutbutterandjellysandwichcouldraiseacaseofhives.ApeanutbuttercupdroppedinaHalloweenbagcouldcontaminatetherestofthetreatsposinganunknownrisk. Thesearethescenariosthat"makeyourbonemarrowturncold"accordingtoL.ValGiddingsvicepresidentforfoodandagricultureoftheBiotechnologyIndustryOrganization.BesidesrepresentingthepolicyinterestsoffoodbiotechcompaniesinWashingtonD.C.Giddingsisthefatherofafour-year-oldboywithaseverepeanutallergy.Peanutsareonlyoneofthemostallergenicfoods;estimatesofthenumberofpeoplewhoexperienceareactiontothebeanshoveraround2percentofthepopulation. Giddingssaysthatpeanutsareonlyoneofseveralfoodsthatbiotechnologistsarealteringgeneticallyinanattempttoeliminatetheproteinsthatdogreatharmtosomepeople’simmunesystems.Althoughsoyallergiesdonotusuallycauselife-threateningreactionsthescientistsarealsotargetingsoybeanswhichcanbefoundintwothirdsofallmanufacturedfoodmakingthesupermarketaminefieldforpeopleallergictosoy.Biotechnologistsarefocusingonwheattooandmightsoonexpandtheirresearchtotherestofthe"bigeight"allergy-inducingfoods:treenutsmilkeggsshellfishandfish. LastSeptemberforexampleAnthonyJ.KinneyacropgeneticsresearcheratDuPontExperimentalStationinWilmingtonDel.andhiscolleaguesreportedusingatechniquecalledRNAinterferenceRNAitosilencethegenesthatencodep34aproteinresponsibleforcausing65percentofallsoybeanallergies.RNAiexploitsthemechanismthatcellsusetoprotectthemselvesagainstforeigngeneticmaterial;itcausesacelltodestroyRNAtranscribedfromagivengeneeffectivelyturningoffthegene. Whetherthepublicwillacceptfoodgeneticallymodifiedtobelow-allergenisstillunknown.CourtneyChabotDreyeraspokespersonforPioneerHi-BredInternationalasubsidiaryofDuPontsaysthatthecompanywillconductstudiestodeterminewhetherapromisingmarketexistsforlowallergensoybeforedevelopingtheseedsforsaletofarmers.SheestimatesthatPioneerHi-Bredissevenyearsawayfromcommercializingthealteredsoybeans. DougGurian-ShermanscientificdirectorofthebiotechnologyprojectattheCenterforScienceinthePublicInterest—agroupthathasadvocatedenhancedFoodandDrugAdministrationoversightforgeneticallymodifiedfoods—commentsthathisorganizationwouldnotopposelow-allergenfoodsiftheyprovetobesafe.Buthewondersabout"identitypreservation"atermusedinthefoodindustrytodescribethedeliberateseparationofgeneticallyengineeredandnonengineeredproducts.Abatchofnonengineeredpeanutsorsoybeansmightcontaminatemachineryreservedforlow-allergenversionshesuggestsreducingthebenefitofthegene-alteredfood.Suchissuesofidentitypreservationcouldmakelow-allergengeneticallymodifiedfoodstoocostlytoproduceChabotDreyeradmits.Butshesays"it’sstilltooearlytoseeifthat’strue./ FromthetextwecanknowthatRNAi
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 3
Soonafterhisappointmentassecretary-generaloftheUnitedNationsin1997KofiAnnanlamentedthathewasbeingaccusedoffailingtoreformtheworldbodyinsixweeks."Butwhatareyoucomplainingabout"askedtheRussianambassador."You’vehadmoretimethanGod."AhMr.Annanquippedback"butGodhadonebigadvantage.HeworkedalonewithoutaGeneralAssemblyaSecurityCounciland[all]thecommittees." RecountingthatanecdotetojournalistsinNewYorkthisweekMr.AnnansoughttoexplainwhyadraftdeclarationonUNreformandtacklingworldpovertyduetobeendorsedbysome150headsofstateandgovernmentataworldsummitinthecityonSeptember14th-16thhadturnedintosuchapaleshadowoftheproposalsthathehimselfhadputforwardinMarch."With191memberstates"hesighed"it’snoteasytogetanagreement." MostcountriesputtheblameontheUnitedStatesintheformofitsabrasivenewambassadorJohnBoltonforinsistingattheendofAugustonhundredsoflast-minuteamendmentsandaline-by-linerenegotiationofatextmostothershadthoughtwasalmostsettled.Butagroupofmiddle-incomedevelopingnationsincludingPakistanCubaIranEgyptSyriaandVenezuelaalsocameupwithplentyoflast-minutechangesoftheirown.Theriskofhavingnodocumentatallandthusnothingfortheworld’sleaderstocometoNewYorkforwasavertedonlybymarathonall-nightandall-weekendtalks. The35-pagefinaldocumentisnotwhollydevoidofsubstance.ItcallsforthecreationofaPeacebuildingCommissiontosupervisethereconstructionofcountriesafterwars;thereplacementofthediscreditedUNCommissiononHumanRightsbyasupposedlytougherHumanRightsCouncil;therecognitionofanew"responsibilitytoprotect"peoplesfromgenocideandotheratrocitieswhennationalauthoritiesfailtotakeactionincludingifnecessarybyforce;andan"early"reformoftheSecurityCouncil.Althoughmuchpareddownalltheseproposalshaveatleastsurvived. Othershavenot.Eithertheyprovedsocontentiousthattheywereomittedaltogethersuchasthesectionsondisarmamentandnon-proliferationandtheInternationalCriminalCourtortheywerewatereddowntolittlemorethanemptyplatitudes.Theimportantsectiononcollectivesecurityandtheuseofforcenolongerevenmentionsthevexedissueofpre-emptivestrikes;meanwhilethesectiononterrorismcondemnsit"inallitsformsandmanifestationscommittedbywhomeverwhereverandforwhateverpurposes"butfailstoprovidethecleardefinitiontheAmericanswanted. BothMr.AnnanandmoresurprisinglyGeorgeBushhaveneverthelesssoughttoputagoodfaceonthingswithMr.Annandescribingthesummitdocumentas"animportantstepforward"andMr.BushsayingtheUNhadtaken"thefirststeps"towardsreform.Mr.AnnanandMr.Boltonaredeterminedtogoalotfurther.ItisnowuptotheGeneralAssemblytofleshoutthedocument’sskeletonproposalsandproposenewones.Butitschancesofsuccessappearslim. Accordingtothetextemptyplatitudesmightbefoundinthesectionon
AtColumbiaUniversitywhereItaughteconomicsformanyyearsbeforecomingtoChinamostofmystudentsspentagreatdealoftimeinvolunteerwork.TheytaughtpoorchildreninthelocalneighborhoodstheyvisitedtheelderlyinhospitalsandathomeandhelpedthemwiththeirshoppingtheyworkedtopreservehistoricsitesandplacesofbeautytheycleanedupwastedumpstheypreparedfoodforthehungrytheycreatedandranstudentnewspaperstheyorganizedconcertsandartisticeventstheyactedastranslatorsformigrantworkerstheyformedpoliticalpressuregroupstheyraisedmoneytocombatAIDSmalariaandotherdiseasesandsoon.Aspart0fthattraditionIdovolunteerworkhereinBeijingjustasIdidinNewYorkbutIfindthatmystudentsatTsinghuaUniversityandatotherschoolsinBeijingaremuchlessinvolvedinvolunteeringthenIhadexpected;InpartofcoursethisreflectstheheavierworkloadinChineseschoolswhichleaveslesstimeforoutsideactivities.ButIthinkthereismoretoitthanjustthis.Ithinkitalsoreflectsaverydifferentsysteminwhichvolunteerworkforstudentshereisusuallyorganizedorsponsoredbygovernmentschoolsorotherofficialgroupsratherthanbythestudentsthemselves.41.Thisisunfortunate.IthinkitwouldbebetterbothforthemandforsocietyifChinesestudentstooktheinitiativetodecidewhatkindsofproblemsorissuestheyfelttobeofimportanceandthenplayedamoreactiveroleinorganizingthework.42.Butthereareatleasttwootherimportantreasonsfordoingvolunteerwork.Thefirstisthatyoucanlearnalotaboutyourselfandaboutyourabilitiesbyorganizingtakingonresponsibilitiesdecidingonobjectivesandfulfillingthem.43.Thisisanimportantlesson.Manyofmystudentshereworkveryhardbuttheirattitudetowardstheirworkisnotalwaysahealthyone.Theydotheworknotbecausetheyloveitorfeelthatitisexcitingbutratherbecauseitisexpectedofthemandtheywillgetrewardedoratleastnotpunishediftheydoit.Withcharitableworkthereisnoexplicitreward.Youworkbecauseyouhavegoalsandintheendtheonlyjudgeofyourworkisyourself.44.Italsoforcesyoutothinkaboutwhatyouaredoingandthebestwaytoaccomplishyourobjectives.Youarenolongersimplydoingsomethingbecauseyourteacheroryourbosstoldyoutodoit.Thesecondimportantreasonforcharitableworkisthatitchangesyourrelationshipwithyoursociety.SometimesIfeelthatmanyofthepeopleImeetheredon’treallyappreciatethegreatnessofChinaandtheexcitementoftheprocessthroughwhichitiscurrentlyliving.TheChinesearewell-knownforbeingnationalisticbutsometimesIthinkthisnationalismhasmoretodowithdistrustofforeignersthanwithloveofcountry.ManyofmyfriendsandstudentssimplydonotknowverymuchabouttheirowncountryandoftenseemunhappywithorembarrassedbycertainaspectsofChina.45.ForexampleifyouhelpthechildrenofmigrantworkerswiththeireducationyouwillquicklyrealizethatpoormigrantworkersshouldnotbeseenasanembarrassmenttoBeijing.OnthecontrarytheyareagreatstrengthandtheirstoriesarepartofahugeanddramaticexperimentthatChinaisundergoing.Inasmallwaybyworkingwithmigrantchildrenyoucanhelpmaketheexperimentasuccess.[A]Ithinkthatiftheyhadspentmoretimeengagedinactivitiesoutsideofschoolandfamilysuchasdoingvolunteerworktheywouldfeelverydifferently.[B]Thischangesthewayyouthinkaboutworkandaboutyourresponsibilitiestoyourselfandothers.[C]YouwillrealizehowfutureeventscanhavejustasBiganimpactonyourlifeandthoseofyourfriendsandfamily.[D]ThismeansthatmanystudentshereinBeijingthinkofvolunteeringassomethingthatmustbedonetopleaseteachersbossesorotherfiguresofauthorityratherthanbecauseofadesiretoaddressaproblemaboutwhichtheyhavethoughtverydeeply.[E]Whenyouworkcloselywithotherswhoarelessfortunatethanyouorwhenyousetalocalgoalandworktoaccomplishityouseedirectlyhowyouractionscanaffecttheworldaroundyou.[F]Ifyouareinterestedinvolunteerworkyoudon’thavetowaitforyourschoolyourteachersorofficialsontelevisiontotellyouwhattodo.[G]Therearemanyreasonswhythiswouldbegood.Themostobviousreasonofcourseisthatweallhaveobligationstowardsoursocietyandvolunteerworkisonewayofrepayingthisobligation.
Itwasthebestoftimesordependingonyourpoliticalandphilosophicaloutlookoneofthefoulestandmostdepraved.Rebellionseemedtobeleapingfromcitytocitycontinenttocontinentbysomefieryprocessofcontagion.RadicalstudentsfilledthestreetsofMexicocityBerlinTokyoPrague.IntheU.S.ChicagoswirledintonearanarchyascopsbattledantiwardemonstratorsgatheredattheDemocraticConvention.AndeverywherefromAmsterdamtoHaight-Ashburyagenerationwasgettinghighactingup. Soclearlyitwastheyearfromhell--acollective"diveintoextensivesocialandpersonaldysfunction"astheWallStreetJournaleditorializedrecently.Ordependingagainonyouroutlookaglobalbreakthroughforthehumanspirit.Onthisthe25thanniversaryof1968probablytheonlythingwecanallagreeonisthat’68marksthebeginningofthe"culturewars"whichhavedividedAmericaeversince. Boththesidesofthe"culturewars"ofthe’80sand’90stookforminthecriticalyearof’68.Thekeyissuesaredifferentnow--abortionandgayrightsforexampleasopposedtoVietnamandracism--buttheunderlyingthemesstillechotheclashesof’68:Diversityvs.conformitytraditionvs.iconoclasmself-expressionvs.deferencetonorms."Questionauthority"inotherwordsvs."Fatherknowsbest." The25thanniversaryof’68isagoodtimetoreflectcalmlyandphilosophicallyonthesedeepunderlyingchoices.Ononehandweknowthatanti-authoritarianismforitsownsakeeasilydegeneratesintoarudeandunfocuseddefiance:RevolutionasAbbieHoffmanputit"forthehellofit."Certainly’68haditswretchedexcessesaswellasitsmomentsofglory:thepersonaltragedyoflivesundonebydrugsandsextheheavycostofriotsanddestruction.Onemighteasilyconcludethattheancientrulesandhierarchiesarethereforareason--they’reworkedmoreorlessforuntoldmillenniumssothere’snopointinchangingthemnow. Butit’salsotruethatwhat"worked"forthousandsofyearsmaynotbethebestwayofdoingthings.Democracyafterallwasoneeafar-outsubversivenotioncondemnedbykingsandpriests.Inourowncountryittookallkindsofhell-raisingincludingawartogetacrossthesimplenotionthatnopersonismorallyentitledtoownanother.Onegeneration’shallowedtradition--slaveryorthedivinerightofkings--maybeanothergeneration’sobjectlessoninhumanfolly. ’68wasonemoreawkwardstumblinghalf-stepforwardinwhatDutschkecalledthe"longmarch"towardhumanfreedom.Actuallyithelpedinspiretheworldwidefeministmovement. TheviewsofHoffmanandDutschkeonrebellionare
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 1
Itwasthebestoftimesordependingonyourpoliticalandphilosophicaloutlookoneofthefoulestandmostdepraved.Rebellionseemedtobeleapingfromcitytocitycontinenttocontinentbysomefieryprocessofcontagion.RadicalstudentsfilledthestreetsofMexicocityBerlinTokyoPrague.IntheU.S.ChicagoswirledintonearanarchyascopsbattledantiwardemonstratorsgatheredattheDemocraticConvention.AndeverywherefromAmsterdamtoHaight-Ashburyagenerationwasgettinghighactingup. Soclearlyitwastheyearfromhell--acollective"diveintoextensivesocialandpersonaldysfunction"astheWallStreetJournaleditorializedrecently.Ordependingagainonyouroutlookaglobalbreakthroughforthehumanspirit.Onthisthe25thanniversaryof1968probablytheonlythingwecanallagreeonisthat’68marksthebeginningofthe"culturewars"whichhavedividedAmericaeversince. Boththesidesofthe"culturewars"ofthe’80sand’90stookforminthecriticalyearof’68.Thekeyissuesaredifferentnow--abortionandgayrightsforexampleasopposedtoVietnamandracism--buttheunderlyingthemesstillechotheclashesof’68:Diversityvs.conformitytraditionvs.iconoclasmself-expressionvs.deferencetonorms."Questionauthority"inotherwordsvs."Fatherknowsbest." The25thanniversaryof’68isagoodtimetoreflectcalmlyandphilosophicallyonthesedeepunderlyingchoices.Ononehandweknowthatanti-authoritarianismforitsownsakeeasilydegeneratesintoarudeandunfocuseddefiance:RevolutionasAbbieHoffmanputit"forthehellofit."Certainly’68haditswretchedexcessesaswellasitsmomentsofglory:thepersonaltragedyoflivesundonebydrugsandsextheheavycostofriotsanddestruction.Onemighteasilyconcludethattheancientrulesandhierarchiesarethereforareason--they’reworkedmoreorlessforuntoldmillenniumssothere’snopointinchangingthemnow. Butit’salsotruethatwhat"worked"forthousandsofyearsmaynotbethebestwayofdoingthings.Democracyafterallwasoneeafar-outsubversivenotioncondemnedbykingsandpriests.Inourowncountryittookallkindsofhell-raisingincludingawartogetacrossthesimplenotionthatnopersonismorallyentitledtoownanother.Onegeneration’shallowedtradition--slaveryorthedivinerightofkings--maybeanothergeneration’sobjectlessoninhumanfolly. ’68wasonemoreawkwardstumblinghalf-stepforwardinwhatDutschkecalledthe"longmarch"towardhumanfreedom.Actuallyithelpedinspiretheworldwidefeministmovement. DifferentgenerationsofAmericansmaybebestdividedwithregardto
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 19
SevenyearsagoagroupoffemalescientistsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyproducedapieceofresearchshowingthatseniorwomenprofessorsintheinstitute’sschoolofsciencehadlowersalariesandreceivedfewerresourcesforresearchthantheirmalecounterpartsdid.Discriminationagainstfemalescientistshascroppedupelsewhere.Onestudy—conductedinSwedenofallplaces—showedthatfemalemedical-researchscientistshadtobetwiceasgoodasmentowinresearchgrants.Thesepiecesofworkthoughwererelativelysmall-scale.NowamuchlargerstudyhasfoundthatdiscriminationplaysaroleinthepaygapbetweenmaleandfemalescientistsatBritishuniversities. SaraConnollyaresearcherattheUniversityofEastAnglia’sschoolofeconomicshasbeenanalyzingtheresultsofasurveyofover7000scientistsandshehasjustpresentedherfindingsatthisyear’smeetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceinNorwich.Shefoundthattheaveragepaygapbetweenmaleandfemaleacademicsworkinginscienceengineeringandtechnologyisaround￡1500$2850ayear. Thatisnotofcourseirrefutableproofofdiscrimination.Analternativehypothesisisthatthecoursesofmen’sandwomen’slivesmeanthegapiscausedbysomethingelse;womentaking"careerbreaks"tohavechildrenforexampleandthusrisingmoreslowlythroughthehierarchy.UnfortunatelyforthatideaDr.Connollyfoundthatmenarealsolikelytoearnmorewithinanygivengradeofthehierarchy.Maleprofessorsforexampleearnover￡4000ayearmorethanfemaleones. ToprovethepointbeyonddoubtDr.Connollyworkedouthowmuchoftheoverallpaydifferentialwasexplainedbydifferencessuchasseniorityexperienceandageandhowmuchwasunexplainedandthereforesuggestiveofdiscrimination.Explicabledifferencesamountedto77%oftheoverallpaygapbetweenthesexes.Thatstillleftasubstantial23%gapinpaywhichDr.Connollyattributestodiscrimination. Besidespayherstudyalsolookedatthe"glass-ceiling"effect—namelythatatallstagesofawoman’scareersheislesslikelythanhermalecolleaguestobepromoted.Betweenpostdoctoralandlecturerlevelmenaremorelikelytobepromotedthanwomenarebyafactorofbetween1.04and2.45.Suchdifferencesarebiggerathighergradeswiththehardestmoveofallbeingforawomantosettleintoaprofessorialchair. Ofcourseitmightbethatateachgrademendomoreworkthanwomentomakethemselvesmoreeligibleforpromotion.Butthatexplanationtooseemstobewrong.UnlikethepreviousstudiesDr.Connolly’scomparedtheexperienceofscientistsinuniversitieswiththatofthoseinothersortsoflaboratory.Itturnsoutthatfemaleacademicresearchersfacemorebarrierstopromotionandhaveawidergapbetweentheirpayandthatoftheirmalecounterpartsthandotheirsistersinindustryorresearchinstitutesindependentofuniversities.Privateenterpriseinotherwordsdeliversmoreequalitythanthesupposedlyegalitarianworldofacademiadoes. Accordingtothetexttheauthorplacesinterpretationon
SevenyearsagoagroupoffemalescientistsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyproducedapieceofresearchshowingthatseniorwomenprofessorsintheinstitute’sschoolofsciencehadlowersalariesandreceivedfewerresourcesforresearchthantheirmalecounterpartsdid.Discriminationagainstfemalescientistshascroppedupelsewhere.Onestudy—conductedinSwedenofallplaces—showedthatfemalemedical-researchscientistshadtobetwiceasgoodasmentowinresearchgrants.Thesepiecesofworkthoughwererelativelysmall-scale.NowamuchlargerstudyhasfoundthatdiscriminationplaysaroleinthepaygapbetweenmaleandfemalescientistsatBritishuniversities. SaraConnollyaresearcherattheUniversityofEastAnglia’sschoolofeconomicshasbeenanalyzingtheresultsofasurveyofover7000scientistsandshehasjustpresentedherfindingsatthisyear’smeetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceinNorwich.Shefoundthattheaveragepaygapbetweenmaleandfemaleacademicsworkinginscienceengineeringandtechnologyisaround￡1500$2850ayear. Thatisnotofcourseirrefutableproofofdiscrimination.Analternativehypothesisisthatthecoursesofmen’sandwomen’slivesmeanthegapiscausedbysomethingelse;womentaking"careerbreaks"tohavechildrenforexampleandthusrisingmoreslowlythroughthehierarchy.UnfortunatelyforthatideaDr.Connollyfoundthatmenarealsolikelytoearnmorewithinanygivengradeofthehierarchy.Maleprofessorsforexampleearnover￡4000ayearmorethanfemaleones. ToprovethepointbeyonddoubtDr.Connollyworkedouthowmuchoftheoverallpaydifferentialwasexplainedbydifferencessuchasseniorityexperienceandageandhowmuchwasunexplainedandthereforesuggestiveofdiscrimination.Explicabledifferencesamountedto77%oftheoverallpaygapbetweenthesexes.Thatstillleftasubstantial23%gapinpaywhichDr.Connollyattributestodiscrimination. Besidespayherstudyalsolookedatthe"glass-ceiling"effect—namelythatatallstagesofawoman’scareersheislesslikelythanhermalecolleaguestobepromoted.Betweenpostdoctoralandlecturerlevelmenaremorelikelytobepromotedthanwomenarebyafactorofbetween1.04and2.45.Suchdifferencesarebiggerathighergradeswiththehardestmoveofallbeingforawomantosettleintoaprofessorialchair. Ofcourseitmightbethatateachgrademendomoreworkthanwomentomakethemselvesmoreeligibleforpromotion.Butthatexplanationtooseemstobewrong.UnlikethepreviousstudiesDr.Connolly’scomparedtheexperienceofscientistsinuniversitieswiththatofthoseinothersortsoflaboratory.Itturnsoutthatfemaleacademicresearchersfacemorebarrierstopromotionandhaveawidergapbetweentheirpayandthatoftheirmalecounterpartsthandotheirsistersinindustryorresearchinstitutesindependentofuniversities.Privateenterpriseinotherwordsdeliversmoreequalitythanthesupposedlyegalitarianworldofacademiadoes. Whichoffollowingscouldbethebesttitleforthetext
Abiteofacookiecontainingpeanutscouldcausetheairwaytoconstrictfatally.Sharingatoywithanotherchildwhohadearliereatenapeanutbutterandjellysandwichcouldraiseacaseofhives.ApeanutbuttercupdroppedinaHalloweenbagcouldcontaminatetherestofthetreatsposinganunknownrisk. Thesearethescenariosthat"makeyourbonemarrowturncold"accordingtoL.ValGiddingsvicepresidentforfoodandagricultureoftheBiotechnologyIndustryOrganization.BesidesrepresentingthepolicyinterestsoffoodbiotechcompaniesinWashingtonD.C.Giddingsisthefatherofafour-year-oldboywithaseverepeanutallergy.Peanutsareonlyoneofthemostallergenicfoods;estimatesofthenumberofpeoplewhoexperienceareactiontothebeanshoveraround2percentofthepopulation. Giddingssaysthatpeanutsareonlyoneofseveralfoodsthatbiotechnologistsarealteringgeneticallyinanattempttoeliminatetheproteinsthatdogreatharmtosomepeople’simmunesystems.Althoughsoyallergiesdonotusuallycauselife-threateningreactionsthescientistsarealsotargetingsoybeanswhichcanbefoundintwothirdsofallmanufacturedfoodmakingthesupermarketaminefieldforpeopleallergictosoy.Biotechnologistsarefocusingonwheattooandmightsoonexpandtheirresearchtotherestofthe"bigeight"allergy-inducingfoods:treenutsmilkeggsshellfishandfish. LastSeptemberforexampleAnthonyJ.KinneyacropgeneticsresearcheratDuPontExperimentalStationinWilmingtonDel.andhiscolleaguesreportedusingatechniquecalledRNAinterferenceRNAitosilencethegenesthatencodep34aproteinresponsibleforcausing65percentofallsoybeanallergies.RNAiexploitsthemechanismthatcellsusetoprotectthemselvesagainstforeigngeneticmaterial;itcausesacelltodestroyRNAtranscribedfromagivengeneeffectivelyturningoffthegene. Whetherthepublicwillacceptfoodgeneticallymodifiedtobelow-allergenisstillunknown.CourtneyChabotDreyeraspokespersonforPioneerHi-BredInternationalasubsidiaryofDuPontsaysthatthecompanywillconductstudiestodeterminewhetherapromisingmarketexistsforlowallergensoybeforedevelopingtheseedsforsaletofarmers.SheestimatesthatPioneerHi-Bredissevenyearsawayfromcommercializingthealteredsoybeans. DougGurian-ShermanscientificdirectorofthebiotechnologyprojectattheCenterforScienceinthePublicInterest—agroupthathasadvocatedenhancedFoodandDrugAdministrationoversightforgeneticallymodifiedfoods—commentsthathisorganizationwouldnotopposelow-allergenfoodsiftheyprovetobesafe.Buthewondersabout"identitypreservation"atermusedinthefoodindustrytodescribethedeliberateseparationofgeneticallyengineeredandnonengineeredproducts.Abatchofnonengineeredpeanutsorsoybeansmightcontaminatemachineryreservedforlow-allergenversionshesuggestsreducingthebenefitofthegene-alteredfood.Suchissuesofidentitypreservationcouldmakelow-allergengeneticallymodifiedfoodstoocostlytoproduceChabotDreyeradmits.Butshesays"it’sstilltooearlytoseeifthat’strue./ Whatcanbeinferredaboutgeneticallymodifiedfoodsfromthetext
46Populararthasanumberofmeaningsimpossibletodefinewithanyprecisionwhichrangefromfolkloretojunkwithpolesbeingclearenoughbutthemiddletendingtoblur.TheHollywoodWesternofthe1930’sforexamplehaselementsoffolklorebutisclosertojunkthantohighartorfolkart.Therecanbegreattrashjustasthereisbadhighart.ThemusicalsofGeorgeGershwinaregreatpopularartneveraspiringtohighart.SchubertandBrahmshoweverusedelementsofpopularmusic—folkthemes—inworksclearlyintendedashighart.ThecaseofVerdiisadifferentone:hetookapopulargenre—bourgeoismelodramasettomusicanaccuratedefinitionofnineteenth-centuryopera—andwithoutalteringitsfundamentalnaturetransmuteditintohighart.47Thisremainsoneofthegreatestachievementsinmusicandonethatcannotbefullyappreciatedwithoutrecognizingtheessentialtrashinessofthegenre.AsanexampleofsuchatransmutationconsiderwhatVerdimadeofthetypicalpoliticalelementsofnineteenth-centuryopera.48Generallyintheplotsoftheseoperasaheroorheroine—usuallyportrayedonlyasanindividualunrestrainedbyclass—iscaughtbetweentheimmoralcorruptionofthearistocracyandthedoctrinairerigidityoftheleadersofthecivilians.Verditransformsthisnaiveandunlikeformulationwithmusicofextraordinaryenergyandrhythmicvitalitymusicmoresubtlethanitseemsatfirsthearing.Therearescenesandariasthatstillsoundlikecallstoarmsandwereclearlyunderstoodassuchwhentheywerefirstperformed.Suchpieceslendanimmediacytotheotherwiseveiledpoliticalmessageoftheseoperasandcallupfeelingsbeyondthoseoftheoperaitself.OrconsiderVerdi’streatmentofcharacter.49BeforeVerditherewererarelyanycharactersatallinmusicaldramaonlyaseriesofsituationswhichallowedthesingerstoexpressaseriesofemotionalstate.Anyattempttofindcoherentpsychologicalportrayalintheseoperasismisplacedingenuity.Theonlycoherencewasthesinger’svocaltechnique:whenthecastchangednewariaswerealmostalwayssubstitutedgenerallyadaptedfromotheroperas.Verdi’scharactersontheotherhandhavegenuineconsistencyandintegrityevenifinmanycasestheconsistencyisthatofpasteboardmelodrama.Theintegrityofthecharacterisachievedthroughthemusic:50oncehehadbecomeestablishedVerdididnotrewritehismusicfordifferentsingersorallowalterationsorsubstitutionsofsomebodyelse’sariasinoneofhisoperasaseveryeighteenth-centurycomposerhaddone.Whenherevisedanoperaitwasonlyfordramaticeconomyandeffectiveness.
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 17
AtColumbiaUniversitywhereItaughteconomicsformanyyearsbeforecomingtoChinamostofmystudentsspentagreatdealoftimeinvolunteerwork.TheytaughtpoorchildreninthelocalneighborhoodstheyvisitedtheelderlyinhospitalsandathomeandhelpedthemwiththeirshoppingtheyworkedtopreservehistoricsitesandplacesofbeautytheycleanedupwastedumpstheypreparedfoodforthehungrytheycreatedandranstudentnewspaperstheyorganizedconcertsandartisticeventstheyactedastranslatorsformigrantworkerstheyformedpoliticalpressuregroupstheyraisedmoneytocombatAIDSmalariaandotherdiseasesandsoon.Aspart0fthattraditionIdovolunteerworkhereinBeijingjustasIdidinNewYorkbutIfindthatmystudentsatTsinghuaUniversityandatotherschoolsinBeijingaremuchlessinvolvedinvolunteeringthenIhadexpected;InpartofcoursethisreflectstheheavierworkloadinChineseschoolswhichleaveslesstimeforoutsideactivities.ButIthinkthereismoretoitthanjustthis.Ithinkitalsoreflectsaverydifferentsysteminwhichvolunteerworkforstudentshereisusuallyorganizedorsponsoredbygovernmentschoolsorotherofficialgroupsratherthanbythestudentsthemselves.41.Thisisunfortunate.IthinkitwouldbebetterbothforthemandforsocietyifChinesestudentstooktheinitiativetodecidewhatkindsofproblemsorissuestheyfelttobeofimportanceandthenplayedamoreactiveroleinorganizingthework.42.Butthereareatleasttwootherimportantreasonsfordoingvolunteerwork.Thefirstisthatyoucanlearnalotaboutyourselfandaboutyourabilitiesbyorganizingtakingonresponsibilitiesdecidingonobjectivesandfulfillingthem.43.Thisisanimportantlesson.Manyofmystudentshereworkveryhardbuttheirattitudetowardstheirworkisnotalwaysahealthyone.Theydotheworknotbecausetheyloveitorfeelthatitisexcitingbutratherbecauseitisexpectedofthemandtheywillgetrewardedoratleastnotpunishediftheydoit.Withcharitableworkthereisnoexplicitreward.Youworkbecauseyouhavegoalsandintheendtheonlyjudgeofyourworkisyourself.44.Italsoforcesyoutothinkaboutwhatyouaredoingandthebestwaytoaccomplishyourobjectives.Youarenolongersimplydoingsomethingbecauseyourteacheroryourbosstoldyoutodoit.Thesecondimportantreasonforcharitableworkisthatitchangesyourrelationshipwithyoursociety.SometimesIfeelthatmanyofthepeopleImeetheredon’treallyappreciatethegreatnessofChinaandtheexcitementoftheprocessthroughwhichitiscurrentlyliving.TheChinesearewell-knownforbeingnationalisticbutsometimesIthinkthisnationalismhasmoretodowithdistrustofforeignersthanwithloveofcountry.ManyofmyfriendsandstudentssimplydonotknowverymuchabouttheirowncountryandoftenseemunhappywithorembarrassedbycertainaspectsofChina.45.ForexampleifyouhelpthechildrenofmigrantworkerswiththeireducationyouwillquicklyrealizethatpoormigrantworkersshouldnotbeseenasanembarrassmenttoBeijing.OnthecontrarytheyareagreatstrengthandtheirstoriesarepartofahugeanddramaticexperimentthatChinaisundergoing.Inasmallwaybyworkingwithmigrantchildrenyoucanhelpmaketheexperimentasuccess.[A]Ithinkthatiftheyhadspentmoretimeengagedinactivitiesoutsideofschoolandfamilysuchasdoingvolunteerworktheywouldfeelverydifferently.[B]Thischangesthewayyouthinkaboutworkandaboutyourresponsibilitiestoyourselfandothers.[C]YouwillrealizehowfutureeventscanhavejustasBiganimpactonyourlifeandthoseofyourfriendsandfamily.[D]ThismeansthatmanystudentshereinBeijingthinkofvolunteeringassomethingthatmustbedonetopleaseteachersbossesorotherfiguresofauthorityratherthanbecauseofadesiretoaddressaproblemaboutwhichtheyhavethoughtverydeeply.[E]Whenyouworkcloselywithotherswhoarelessfortunatethanyouorwhenyousetalocalgoalandworktoaccomplishityouseedirectlyhowyouractionscanaffecttheworldaroundyou.[F]Ifyouareinterestedinvolunteerworkyoudon’thavetowaitforyourschoolyourteachersorofficialsontelevisiontotellyouwhattodo.[G]Therearemanyreasonswhythiswouldbegood.Themostobviousreasonofcourseisthatweallhaveobligationstowardsoursocietyandvolunteerworkisonewayofrepayingthisobligation.
Peoplehavegoodreasontocareaboutthewelfareofanimals.EversincetheEnlightenmenttheirtreatmenthasbeenseenasameasureofmankind’shumanity.ItisnocoincidencethatWilliamWilberforceandSirThomasFoxwellBuxtontwoleadersofthemovementtoabolishtheslavetradehelpedfoundtheRoyalSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimalsinthe1820s.Anincreasingnumberofpeoplegofurther:mankindhasadutynottocausepaintoanimalsthathavethecapacitytosuffer.Bothviewshaveledpeoplegraduallytoextendtreatmentoncereservedformankindtootherspecies. Butwheneverydaylivesaremeasuredagainstsuchprinciplestheyarefraughtwithcontradictions.Thosewhowouldneverdreamofcagingtheircatsanddogsguzzlebaconandeggsfromghastlyfactoryfarms.Theabattoirandthecattletruckaresecretplacessafelyhiddenfromthemeat-eater’sgazeandthechild’sstorybook.Plentyofpeoplewhodenouncethefur-trademuchofwhichisfromfarmedanimalsquitehappilywearleatheralsofromfarmedanimals. Perhapstheinconsistencyisunderstandable.Afterhundredsofyearsofthinkingaboutitpeoplecannotagreeonasystemofrightsforeachothersothegroundisboundtogetshakierstillwhenanimalsareincluded.Thetroubleisthatconfusionandcontradictionopenthewaytotheextremist.Andbecausescientificresearchisremotefrommostpeople’slivesitisparticularlyvulnerabletotheircampaigns. Infactscienceshouldbethelasttargetwhereveryoudrawtheboundariesofanimalwelfare.Foronethingthereisrarelyanalternativetousinganimalsinresearch.Iftherewerescientistswouldgraspitbecauseanimalresearchisexpensiveandencircledbyregulations.Animalresearchisalsoforahigherpurposethanafullbellyoranelegantoutfit.Theworldneedsnewmedicinesandsurgicalproceduresjustasitneedstheunknowablefruitsofpureresearch. Andscienceisbyandlargekindtoitsanimals.ThecoupleofmillionmainlyratsandmicethatdieinBritain’slaboratoriesarefarbetterlooked-afterandfarmorehumanelykilledthanthebillionorsomainlychickensonBritain’sfarms.IndeedifDarleyOaksmakesupitslossofguineapigswithturkeysordairycowsyoucanbefairlysureanimalwelfareinBritainhasjusttakenastepbackwards. Inthetextacomparisonismadesoasto
Thenoblerandmoreperfectathingisthelaterandsloweritisbecomingmature.Amanreachesthemature1ofhisreasoningpowersandmentalfaculties2beforetheageoftwenty-eight;awomanateighteen.Andthentoointhecaseofwomanitistheonlyreasonofasort--verymeaninits3.Thatiswhywomenremainchildrentheirwholelifelong;neverseeing4butwhatisquiteclosetothem5fasttothepresentmomenttakingappearancefor6andpreferring7tomattersofthefirstimportance.Foritis8hisreasoningfacultythatmandoesnotliveinthepresentonly9thebrutebutlooksabouthimandconsidersthepastandthefuture;andthisistheoriginof10aswellasthatofcareandanxietywhichsomanypeople11Boththeadvantagesandthedisadvantageswhichthis12are13inbythewomantoasmallerextentbecauseofherweakerpowerofreasoning.Shemayinfactbedescribedasintellectuallyshortsighted14whileshehasanimmediateunderstandingofwhatliesquiteclosetoherherfieldof15isnarrowanddoesnotreachtowhatis16;sothatthingswhichareabsentorpastortocomehavemuchlesseffectuponwomenthanuponmen.Thisisthereasonwhywomenareinclinedtobe17andsometimescarrytheirdesiretoa18thatbordersuponmadness.Intheirheartswomenthinkitismen’sbusinesstoearnmoneyandtheirstospendit--ifpossibleduringtheirhusband’slife19atanyrateafterhisdeath.Theveryfactthattheirhusbandhandsthem20hisearningsforpurposesofhousekeepingstrengthenstheminthisbelief. 7
Thoseofushurryingtofinishourtaxesbytomorrow’sdeadlinewillprobablybesubjectedtothoughtsoftheI.R.S.InternalRevenueServiceasanall-powerfulbully.Butthetruthisthegovernmentisnotalwaysamatchforthetaxadvisorsofwealthypeoplesoalotoftaxeswillgounpaidatthetopoftheincomescale. Lawyerswhorepresenthigh-incometaxpayersearnmorethan10timeswhatseniorgovernmentlawyersdo—anobviousdisadvantageforthegovernmentagenciesinattractingandretainingtoptalent.Thelawyerswhowriteourtaxrulesareoverworkedandsometimesinexperiencedsothattheyleaveloopholesthatareexploitedbymoreexperiencedprivatelawyers.Andthegovernmentalwayslosescaseswhichitshouldwinandprovidesprivatelawyerswithprecedents. Asthisviciouscycleshowsskimping节约ontaxadministrationisafalseeconomy.Insteadifwesubstantiallyincreasegovernmentsalariesandstaffinglevelswecanraisemorerevenuewithlowertaxratesandlesswaste.Fourreformsshouldbeadoptedimmediately. Firstthegovernmentshouldfocusonhiringtalentedyounglawyerssincethepaydisparitywiththeprivatesectorisnarrowerforthem.TheseeffortswillbemoreeffectiveifCongresshelpsnewgraduatesrepaystudentloanswhichoftenaremorethan$100000.Aloanrepaymentprogramwouldbeapowerfulrecruitingdevice. Secondthegovernmentshouldtapanotherpromisingtalentpool—recentretireesfromprivatepractice—tomentoryounglawyers.Thesalarygapislessofanissueforretireesandtheopportunitytogivebacktothetaxsystemcanbequiteappealing. Thirdthegovernmentshouldretainasmallteamofadozentoptaxlawyersatsalariesclosertothemarketrate.Theycanserveasarapidreactionforcedecidingwhethertoshutdownanewaggressivestrategyimmediatelyortoletitbeevaluatedthroughusualgovernmentchannels. Fourththegovernmentshouldretainprivatelawyerstohelpwithhigh-priorityprojects.Animportantconstraintisthatlawyerswhorepresentprivateclientsmayviewitasaconflicttohelpthegovernment.Butthisisnotalwaystrue. Throughbarassociationsprivatelawyersalreadyvolunteertoreviewproposedchangesinthetaxlawandofferwaystoimprovethem.Taxacademicscanalsobeavaluableandconflict-freesourceofexpertisesincetheyordinarilydonotrepresentclients.Andsometaxlitigators诉讼律师mayviewitasaprestigiousopportunityandapatrioticservicetorepresentthegovernmentinataxcasethatcouldsetanimportantprecedent. Thetaxsystemcanbeonlyasstrongasthepeoplewhorunitsothegovernmenthastorecruitandretainthemostpromisingtalent.Ataxsystemcanbefairandefficientonlywhenitisadministeredsoundly. Accordingtothetextthemostimportantfactortoperfecttaxsystemisto
SevenyearsagoagroupoffemalescientistsattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyproducedapieceofresearchshowingthatseniorwomenprofessorsintheinstitute’sschoolofsciencehadlowersalariesandreceivedfewerresourcesforresearchthantheirmalecounterpartsdid.Discriminationagainstfemalescientistshascroppedupelsewhere.Onestudy—conductedinSwedenofallplaces—showedthatfemalemedical-researchscientistshadtobetwiceasgoodasmentowinresearchgrants.Thesepiecesofworkthoughwererelativelysmall-scale.NowamuchlargerstudyhasfoundthatdiscriminationplaysaroleinthepaygapbetweenmaleandfemalescientistsatBritishuniversities. SaraConnollyaresearcherattheUniversityofEastAnglia’sschoolofeconomicshasbeenanalyzingtheresultsofasurveyofover7000scientistsandshehasjustpresentedherfindingsatthisyear’smeetingoftheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceinNorwich.Shefoundthattheaveragepaygapbetweenmaleandfemaleacademicsworkinginscienceengineeringandtechnologyisaround￡1500$2850ayear. Thatisnotofcourseirrefutableproofofdiscrimination.Analternativehypothesisisthatthecoursesofmen’sandwomen’slivesmeanthegapiscausedbysomethingelse;womentaking"careerbreaks"tohavechildrenforexampleandthusrisingmoreslowlythroughthehierarchy.UnfortunatelyforthatideaDr.Connollyfoundthatmenarealsolikelytoearnmorewithinanygivengradeofthehierarchy.Maleprofessorsforexampleearnover￡4000ayearmorethanfemaleones. ToprovethepointbeyonddoubtDr.Connollyworkedouthowmuchoftheoverallpaydifferentialwasexplainedbydifferencessuchasseniorityexperienceandageandhowmuchwasunexplainedandthereforesuggestiveofdiscrimination.Explicabledifferencesamountedto77%oftheoverallpaygapbetweenthesexes.Thatstillleftasubstantial23%gapinpaywhichDr.Connollyattributestodiscrimination. Besidespayherstudyalsolookedatthe"glass-ceiling"effect—namelythatatallstagesofawoman’scareersheislesslikelythanhermalecolleaguestobepromoted.Betweenpostdoctoralandlecturerlevelmenaremorelikelytobepromotedthanwomenarebyafactorofbetween1.04and2.45.Suchdifferencesarebiggerathighergradeswiththehardestmoveofallbeingforawomantosettleintoaprofessorialchair. Ofcourseitmightbethatateachgrademendomoreworkthanwomentomakethemselvesmoreeligibleforpromotion.Butthatexplanationtooseemstobewrong.UnlikethepreviousstudiesDr.Connolly’scomparedtheexperienceofscientistsinuniversitieswiththatofthoseinothersortsoflaboratory.Itturnsoutthatfemaleacademicresearchersfacemorebarrierstopromotionandhaveawidergapbetweentheirpayandthatoftheirmalecounterpartsthandotheirsistersinindustryorresearchinstitutesindependentofuniversities.Privateenterpriseinotherwordsdeliversmoreequalitythanthesupposedlyegalitarianworldofacademiadoes. Thephrasecroppedupinthefirstparagraphmostprobablymeans
Soonafterhisappointmentassecretary-generaloftheUnitedNationsin1997KofiAnnanlamentedthathewasbeingaccusedoffailingtoreformtheworldbodyinsixweeks."Butwhatareyoucomplainingabout"askedtheRussianambassador."You’vehadmoretimethanGod."AhMr.Annanquippedback"butGodhadonebigadvantage.HeworkedalonewithoutaGeneralAssemblyaSecurityCounciland[all]thecommittees." RecountingthatanecdotetojournalistsinNewYorkthisweekMr.AnnansoughttoexplainwhyadraftdeclarationonUNreformandtacklingworldpovertyduetobeendorsedbysome150headsofstateandgovernmentataworldsummitinthecityonSeptember14th-16thhadturnedintosuchapaleshadowoftheproposalsthathehimselfhadputforwardinMarch."With191memberstates"hesighed"it’snoteasytogetanagreement." MostcountriesputtheblameontheUnitedStatesintheformofitsabrasivenewambassadorJohnBoltonforinsistingattheendofAugustonhundredsoflast-minuteamendmentsandaline-by-linerenegotiationofatextmostothershadthoughtwasalmostsettled.Butagroupofmiddle-incomedevelopingnationsincludingPakistanCubaIranEgyptSyriaandVenezuelaalsocameupwithplentyoflast-minutechangesoftheirown.Theriskofhavingnodocumentatallandthusnothingfortheworld’sleaderstocometoNewYorkforwasavertedonlybymarathonall-nightandall-weekendtalks. The35-pagefinaldocumentisnotwhollydevoidofsubstance.ItcallsforthecreationofaPeacebuildingCommissiontosupervisethereconstructionofcountriesafterwars;thereplacementofthediscreditedUNCommissiononHumanRightsbyasupposedlytougherHumanRightsCouncil;therecognitionofanew"responsibilitytoprotect"peoplesfromgenocideandotheratrocitieswhennationalauthoritiesfailtotakeactionincludingifnecessarybyforce;andan"early"reformoftheSecurityCouncil.Althoughmuchpareddownalltheseproposalshaveatleastsurvived. Othershavenot.Eithertheyprovedsocontentiousthattheywereomittedaltogethersuchasthesectionsondisarmamentandnon-proliferationandtheInternationalCriminalCourtortheywerewatereddowntolittlemorethanemptyplatitudes.Theimportantsectiononcollectivesecurityandtheuseofforcenolongerevenmentionsthevexedissueofpre-emptivestrikes;meanwhilethesectiononterrorismcondemnsit"inallitsformsandmanifestationscommittedbywhomeverwhereverandforwhateverpurposes"butfailstoprovidethecleardefinitiontheAmericanswanted. BothMr.AnnanandmoresurprisinglyGeorgeBushhaveneverthelesssoughttoputagoodfaceonthingswithMr.Annandescribingthesummitdocumentas"animportantstepforward"andMr.BushsayingtheUNhadtaken"thefirststeps"towardsreform.Mr.AnnanandMr.Boltonaredeterminedtogoalotfurther.ItisnowuptotheGeneralAssemblytofleshoutthedocument’sskeletonproposalsandproposenewones.Butitschancesofsuccessappearslim. Itcanbeinferredfromthethirdparagraphthat
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