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In almost all cases the soft parts of fossils are gone for ever but they were fitted around or withi...
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TeachforAmericaTFAwasfoundedbyWendyKoppin1990.Itisanon-profitorganisationthatrecruitstop-notchgraduatesfromeliteinstitutionsandgetsthemtoteachfortwoyearsinstrugglingstateschoolsinpoorareas.Ihadthoughttheprogrammewasaboutgettingmorehigh-qualityteachers—butthatitappearsisasecondarybenefit.Thisisaboutenlistingtheenergyofourcountry’sfutureleadersinitslong-termeducationalneedsandeliminatinginequityWendyexplains.It’sgreatifcorpsmembersasTFAcallsitsactiveteachersstayintheclassroom—andmanydoandrisequicklythroughtheranks.Butthealumsasshecallsthosewhohavefinishedtheirtwo-yearteachingwhodon’tstayinschoolsoftengoontoleadinotherfieldsmeaningthatincreasingnumbersofinfluentialpeopleinallwalksoflifelearnthatitispossibletoteachsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunitiesandjustwhatittakes.Itmeansyourealisethatwecansolvethisproblem.AsshecontinuestotalkIrealisethatTFAis—inthebestpossiblesense—acult.IthasitsownlanguagecorpsmembersalumsrecruitsareinstilledWetellthemthatitcanbedonethatweknowofhundredsthousandsofteachersattainingtremendoussuccessgothroughanordealEveryonehitsthewallinweekthreeintheclassroomemergetransformedbyprivilegedknowledgeOnceyouknowwhatweknow—thatkidsinpoorurbanareascanexcel—youcanaccomplishdifferentthingsandcanneverleavealumniformagrowingandinfluentialnetwork.IhavenotseenthesamezealwhentalkingtothoseontheequivalentprogrammeinEnglandTeachFirst.inwhichthemissionary-stylelanguageimportedfromAmericahadtobetoneddownbecauseitjustdidn’tsuittherestrainedEnglishstyle.ButcouldthatfavourbenecessaryforitssuccessChesteranalumtakesmetovisitthreeTFAcorpsmembersatamiddleschoolintheBronx.Theyareimpressiveyoungpeopleandtheirzealisevident.Twointendtostayinteaching;bothwanttoopencharterschools.OneaHispanicwomanisworkingoutwithafriendhowtoeducatemigrantHispaniclabourersinTexas;theotherwouldliketoopenagreencharterbutinthemeantimehehasacceptedajobwiththeKIPPchartergroupinNewarkNewJersey.Allthreearetired.TheirclassroomsarenotmuchliketherestoftheschoolwheretheyworkandtheirheroiceffortsareonlysupportedbyChesterandeachothernotbytheirco-workers.Thefirstyearwasunbelievablybadonetellsme.Somanyyearswithlowexpectationsmeantalotofresistancefromthekids.Eventuallytheysawthepowerandthegrowththeywerecapableof.TheprimarygoalofTFAis
DuBoiswasasociologicalandeducationalpioneerwhochallengedtheestablishedsystemofeducationthattendedtorestrictratherthantoadvancetheprogressofblackAmericans.HechallengedwhatiscalledtheTuskegeemachineofBookerT.WashingtontheleadingeducationalspokespersonoftheblacksintheU.S..AsasociologistandhistorianDuBoiscalledforamoredeterminedandactivistleadershipthanWashingtonprovided.UnlikeWashingtonwhoserootswereinsouthernblackagricultureDuBois’scareerspannedbothsidesoftheMason-DixonLine.HewasanativeofMassachusettsreceivedhisundergraduateeducationfromFiskUniversityinNashvilledidhisgraduatestudyatHarvardUniversityanddirectedtheAtlantaUniversityStudiesofBlackAmericanLifeintheSouth.DuBoisapproachedtheproblemofracialrelationsintheUnitedStatesfromtwodimensions:asascholarlyresearcherandasanactivistforcivilrights.AmonghisworkswasthefamousempiricalsociologicalstudyThePhiladelphiaNegro:ASocialStudyinwhichheexaminedthatcity’sblackpopulationandmaderecommendationsfortheschoolsystem.DuBois’sPhiladelphiastudywasthepioneerworkonurbanblacksinAmerica.DuBoishadalongandactivecareerasaleaderinthecivilrightsmovement.HehelpedtoorganizetheNiagaraMovementin1905whichledtotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleNAACPestablishedin1909.From1910until1934DuBoiseditedTheCrisisthemajorjournaloftheNAACP.IntermsofitseducationalpolicytheNAACPpositionwasthatallAmericanchildrenandyouthshouldhavegenuineequalityofeducationalopportunity.ThispolicywhichDuBoishelpedtoformulatestressedthefollowingthemes:1publicschoolingshouldbefreeandcompulsoryforallAmericanchildren;2secondaryschoolingshouldbeprovidedforallyouth;3highereducationshouldnotbemonopolizedbyanyspecialclassorrace.AsaleaderineducationDuBoischallengednotonlythetraditionofracialsegregationintheschoolsbutalsotheaccommodationistideologyofBookerT.Washington.ThemajordifferencebetweenthetwomenwasthatWashingtonsoughtchangethatwasevolutionaryinnatureanddidnotupsetthesocialorderwhereasDuBoisdemandedimmediatechange.DuBoisbelievedineducatedleadershipforblacksandhedevelopedaconceptreferredtoasthetalentedtenthaccordingtowhich10percentoftheblackpopulationwouldreceiveatraditionalcollegeeducationinpreparationforleadership.Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrueaccordingtothetext
HenricIbsenauthoroftheplayADoll’sHouseinwhichaprettyhelplesshousewifeabandonsherhusbandandchildrentoseekamoreseriouslifewouldsurelyhaveapproved.FromJanuary1st2008allpubliccompaniesinNorwayareobligedtoensurethatatleast40%oftheirboarddirectorsarewomen.Mostfirmshaveobeyedthelawwhichwaspassedin2003.Butabout75outofthe480orsocompaniesitaffectsarestilltoomaleforthegovernment’sliking.TheywillshortlyreceivealetterinformingthemthattheyhaveuntiltheendofFebruarytoactorfacethelegalconsequences—whichcouldincludebeingdissolved.Beforethelawwasproposedabout7%ofboardmembersinNorwaywerefemaleaccordingtotheCentreforCorporateDiversity.Thenumberhassincejumpedto36%.Thatisfarhigherthantheaverageof9%forbigcompaniesacrossEuropeorAmerica’s15%fortheFortune500.Norway’sstockexchangeanditsmainbusinesslobbyopposethelawasdomanybusinessmen.IamagainstquotasforwomenormenasamatterofprinciplesaysSverreMunckheadofinternationaloperationsatamediafirm.Boardmembersofpubliccompaniesshouldbechosensolelyonthebasisofmeritandexperiencehesays.Severalfirmshaveevengivenuptheirpublicstatusinordertoescapethenewlaw.Companieshavehadtorecruitabout1000womeninfouryears.Manycomplainthatithasbeendifficulttofindexperiencedcandidates.Becauseofthissomeofthebestwomenhavecollectedasmanyas25-35directorshipseachandareknowninNorwegianbusinesscirclesasthegoldenskirts.OnereasonforthescarcityisthattherearefairlyfewwomeninmanagementinNorwegiancompanies—theyoccupyaround15%ofseniorpositions.Ithasbeenparticularlyhardforfirmsintheoiltechnologyandfinancialindustriestofindwomenwithenoughexperience.Somepeopleworrythattheirrelativelackofexperiencemaykeepwomenquietonboardsandthatinturncouldmeanthatboardsmightbecomelessabletoholdmanagerstoaccount.RecenthistoryinNorwayhoweversuggeststhattherightwomencanmakestrongdirectors.WomenfeelmorecompelledthanmentodotheirhomeworksaysMs.RekstenSkaugenwhowasvotedNorway’schairmanoftheyearfor2007.Apubliccompanythatfailstoobeythenewlawcouldbeforcedto
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Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.2
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.14
OurvisittotheexcavationofaRomanfortonahillnearCoventrywasofmorethanarchaeologicalinterest.Theyear’sdighadbeenafruitfuloneandhadassembledevidenceofapermanentmilitarycampmuchlargerthanhadatfirstbeenconjectured.Weweregreetedonthesitebyagroupofexcavatorssomeofthemfillinginatrenchthathadyieldedanalmostcompletepotthedaybeforeothersenjoyingthelast-dayluxuryofacigaretteinthesunbutallhappytoexplainandtalkabouttheirwork.Ifwehadnotalreadyknownitnothingwouldhavesuggestedthatthiswasapartyofprisonersfromthenearbyprison.Thisisnotthefirsttimethatprisonlaborhasbeenusedinworkofthiskindbutheretheexperimentnowtwoyearsoldhasprovedoutstandinglysatisfactory.Fromthearchaeologists’pointofviewprisonersprovideasteadyforceofdisciplinedlaborthroughouttheentireseasonmentowhomitisaseriousday’sworkandnottherathercarefreeholidayjobthatittendstobefortheamateurarchaeologist.Newcomersarecomparativelyfewandcansoonbeinitiatedbythosealreadytrainedinthework.Prisonersmayalsobemoreaccustomedtoheavyworklikeshovelingandcartingsoilthanthemajorityofstudents.WhenCoventry’sKeeperofArchaeologywenttotheprisontoappealforhelphewasreceivedcautiouslybythemenbutwhentheimportanceoftheworkwasfullyunderstoodfarmorevolunteerswereforthcomingthancouldactuallybeemployed.Whentheygottoworkonthesiteandtheireffortsproducedpotteryandbuildingfoundationsinwhatuntillastyearhadbeenanordinaryfieldtheirenthusiasmgrewtilltheywouldsometimesworkthroughtheirlunchhourandteabreakandevencarryonintherainratherthansititoutinthehut.Thiswasundoubtedlybecausetheworkwasnotonlystrenuousbutabsorbingandcalledforconsiderableintelligence.Themenworkedalwaysunderprofessionalsupervisionbutastheseasonwentontheyneededlessguidanceandknewwhenanexpertshouldbesummoned.Disciplinaryproblemswerenegligible:themenwerecarefullyselectedfortheirgoodconductandworkingonapartylikethiswastoovaluableaprivilegetobethrownaway.TheKeeperofArchaeologysaidthatthiswasbyfarthemostsatisfactoryformoflaborthathehadeverhadandthatithadproducedresultsinquantityandqualitythatcouldnothavebeenachievedbyanyothermeans.Whenprisonerswereselectedforthework
Foryearspediatriciansdidn’tworrymuchabouttreatinghypertensionintheirpatients.Afterallkidsgrowsofastit’shardkeepingupwiththeirshoessizeletalonetheirbloodpressure.Surehypertensioninadultsplacesthematgreaterriskofheartattackandstroke.Butnobodylikestheideaofstartingyoungstersonblood-pressuremedicinetheycouldwinduptakingtherestoftheirlives.Whoknowswhatpreviouslyunheard-ofsideeffectscouldcropupafterfiveorsixdecadesofdailyuse Therationalehasbeen:kidsgrowoutofsomanythings;maybethey’llgrowoutofthistoo. 41．Nowthoughcomeswordthathighbloodpressurecanbedestructiveeveninchildhood. 42．Whoismostatrisk Boysaremorethangirlsespeciallyboyswhoareoverweight.Theirheartworkssohardtoforcebloodthroughextralayersoffatthatitswallsgrowdenser.Thenafterdecadesofstrainingitgrowstoobigtopumpbloodverywell. 43．Howcanyoutellifyoursarelikethe670000Americanchildrenages10to18withhighbloodpressure It’snotthesortofthingyoucancatchbyputtingyourchild’sarminacuffatthefreemonitoringstationinyourlocalgrocery.Youshouldhaveatestdonebyadoctorwhowillconsultspecialtablesthatindicatethenormalrangeofbloodpressureforaparticularchild’sageheightandsex. 44．Abouthalfthecasesofhypertensionstemdirectlyfromkidsbeingoverweight. 45．Howcanyoudo Youcankeepyourchildrenfromjoiningtheirranksbyclearingthejunkfoodfromyourpantryandhookingyoukids—theearlierthebetter—onhealthyattractivesnakeslikefruitstryfreezingsomegrapes/orcarrotstickswithsalsa.Notonlywilltheyloweryourchildren’sbloodpressure:Thesefoodswillalsoboosttheirimmunesystemandunclogtheirplumbing. [A]Andtheproblemislikelytogrow.Overthepast30yearstheproportionofchildrenintheU.S.whoareoverweighthasdoubledfrom5%to11%or4.7millionkids. [B]AccordingtoarecentreportinthejournalCirculation19of30childrenwithhighbloodpressuredevelopedadangerousthickeningoftheheartmusclethatinadultsatleasthasbeenlinkedtoheartfailure.“Nooneknowsifthispatternholdstrueforyoungerpatientsaswell”saysDr.StephenDanielsapediatriccardiologistwholedthestudyatChildren’sHospitalMedicalCenterinCincinnatiOhio.“Butit’sworrisome.” [C]Feedyourchildrennutritiousfoodsthreetimesadaytokeephisimmunesystemhealthy.Makesurethemealsincludeallthefoodgroupstoensuretheyaregettingplentyofvitamins. [D]Fortunatelytheabnormalthickeningcanbespottedbyultrasound.Andinmostcasegettingthatbloodpressureundercontrol—throughweightlossandexerciseorasalastresortdrugtreatment—allowstheoverworkedmuscletoshrinktonormalsize. [E]Ifthedoctorfindsanabnormalresulthewillrepeatthetestoveraperiodofmonthstomakesurethereadingisn’tafake.He’llalsocheckwhetherotherconditionslikekidneydiseasecouldbethesourceofthetroublebecausehypertensionishardtobedetected.TheNationalHeartLungandBloodInstituterecommendsannualblood-pressurechecksforeverychildoverage3. [F]Highbloodpressureisn’tjustanissueforadults;keepingkidsbloodpressurelevelsinahealthyrangeisalsoimportant.InanewstudyreportedinHypertensionresearchersfoundthatincreasedexercisedurationamongkidsleadstolowerbloodpressurelevelshoweverthesamecannotbesaidforincreasedintensity. [G]MeanwhilemakesureyourkidsspendmoretimeontheplaygroundthanwiththeirPlayStation.Eveniftheydon’tshedapoundvigorousexercisewillhelpkeeptheirbloodvesselsniceandwideloweringtheirbloodpressure.Andofcoursethey’llbemorelikelytoeatlightandexerciseifyousetagoodexample. 44
Scienceandpoliticsareinextricablylinked.AtascientificconferenceonclimatechangeheldthisweekinCopenhagenfourenvironmentalexpertsannouncedthatsealevelsappeartoberisingalmosttwiceasrapidlyashadbeenforecastbytheUnitedNationsjusttwoyearsago.46ThewarningisaimedatpoliticianswhowillmeetinthesamecityinDecembertodiscussthesamesubjectandperhapstothrashoutaninternationalagreementtocounterit. Thereasonfortherapidchangeinthepredictedriseinsealevelsisarapidincreaseintheinformationavailable.47In2007whentheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeconvenedbytheUNmadeitspredictionthatsealevelswouldrisebybetween18cmand59cmby2100alackofknowledgeabouthowthepolaricecapswerebehavingwasbehindmuchoftheuncertainty.Sincethentheyhavebeencloselymonitoredandtheresultsaredisturbing.BoththeGreenlandandtheAntarcticcapshavebeenmeltingatanacceleratingrate.Indeedscientistsnowreckonthatsealevelswillrisebybetween50eraand100eraby2100unlessactionistakentocurbclimatechange. 48KonradSteffenaprofessoroftheUniversityofColoradotoldtheconferencethatthissheetismeltingnotonlybecauseitiswarmerbutalsobecausewaterseepingthroughitscrevicesisbreakingitupwhoseeffecthadbeenneglectedintheearlierreport.TheimpactofthemeltingicehasbeenmeasuredbyJohnChurchoftheCentreforAustralianWeatherandClimateResearch.Hetoldtheconferencethatsatelliteandground-basedsystemsshowedthatsealevelshavebeenrisingmorerapidlysince1993.Heisconcernedthatmoreclimatechangecouldcauseafurtheraccelerationinthisrate. StefanofthePotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearchtoldtheconferencethat“basedonpastexperienceIexpectthatsea-levelrisewillaccelerateastheplanetgetshotter.”49HewassupportedinthisviewbythefourthexpertEricRignotoftheUniversityofCaliforniawhocalledfortheworld’sleaderstoslashtheemissionofcarbondioxideandothergreenhousegases. AdvancenegotiationsontheUNClimateChangeConferenceareduetobegininBonninjustoverafortnight’stime.Thescientistshopethattheirstartlingwarningswillchangetheoutcomeofthatpre-meetingmeeting.50Withmuchstilltoargueovertheyhopethataclearscientificleadwillbothhelptonarrowtheroomfordisagreementandgalvanizethedesiretogetatreatyagreed. 48
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.4
Everycultureattemptstocreateauniverseofdiscourseforitsmembersawayinwhichpeoplecaninterprettheirexperienceandconveyittooneanother.Withoutacommonsystemofcodifyingsensationslifewouldbeabsurdandalleffortstosharemeaningsdoomedtofailure.Thisuniverseofdiscourse—oneofthemostpreciousofallculturallegacies—istransmittedtoeachgenerationinpartconsciouslyandinpartunconsciously.Parentsandteachersgiveexplicitinstructioninitbypraisingorcriticizingcertainwaysofdressingofthinkingofgesturingofrespondingtotheactsofothers.Butthemostsignificantaspectsofanyculturalcodemaybeconveyedimplicitlynotbyruleorlessonbutthroughmodelingbehavior.Achildissurroundedbyotherswhothroughthemereconsistencyoftheiractionsasmalesandfemalesmothersandfatherssalesclerksandpolicemendisplaywhatisappropriatebehavior.Thusthegrammarofanycultureissentandreceivedlargelyunconsciouslymakingone’sownculturalassumptionsandbiasesdifficulttorecognize.Theyseemsoobviouslyrightthattheyrequirenoexplanation.InTheOpenandClosedMindMiltonRokeachposestheproblemofculturalunderstandinginitssimplestformbutonethatcanreadilydemonstratethecomplicationofcommunicationbetweencultures.ItiscalledtheDennyDoodlebugProblem.Readersaregivenalltherulesthatgovernthisculture:DennyisananimalthatalwaysfacesNorthandcanmoveonlybyjumping;hecanjumplargedistancesorsmalldistancesbutcanchangedirectiononlyafterjumpingfourtimesinanydirection;hecanjumpNorthSouthEastorWestbutnotdiagonally.Uponconcludingajumphismasterplacessomefoodthreefeetdirectlywestofhim.SurveyingthesituationDennyconcludeshemustjumpfourtimestoreachthefood.Nomoreorless.Andheisright.Allthereaderhastodoistoexplainthecircumstancesthatmakehisconclusioncorrect.Thelargemajorityofpeoplewhoattemptthisproblemfailtosolveitdespitethefactthattheyaregivenalltherulesthatcontrolbehaviorinthisculture.IfthereisdifficultyingettinginsidethesimplisticworldofDennyDoodlebug—wheretheculturalcodehasalreadybeenbrokenandhandedtous—imaginethecomplexityofcomprehendingbehaviorinsocietieswhosecodeshavenotyetbeendecipheredandwhereeventhosewhoobeythesecodesareonlyvaguelyawareandcanrarelydescribetheunderlyingsourcesoftheirownactions.Weacquirethegreaterpartofourculturalcodesby
TeachforAmericaTFAwasfoundedbyWendyKoppin1990.Itisanon-profitorganisationthatrecruitstop-notchgraduatesfromeliteinstitutionsandgetsthemtoteachfortwoyearsinstrugglingstateschoolsinpoorareas.Ihadthoughttheprogrammewasaboutgettingmorehigh-qualityteachers—butthatitappearsisasecondarybenefit.Thisisaboutenlistingtheenergyofourcountry’sfutureleadersinitslong-termeducationalneedsandeliminatinginequityWendyexplains.It’sgreatifcorpsmembersasTFAcallsitsactiveteachersstayintheclassroom—andmanydoandrisequicklythroughtheranks.Butthealumsasshecallsthosewhohavefinishedtheirtwo-yearteachingwhodon’tstayinschoolsoftengoontoleadinotherfieldsmeaningthatincreasingnumbersofinfluentialpeopleinallwalksoflifelearnthatitispossibletoteachsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunitiesandjustwhatittakes.Itmeansyourealisethatwecansolvethisproblem.AsshecontinuestotalkIrealisethatTFAis—inthebestpossiblesense—acult.IthasitsownlanguagecorpsmembersalumsrecruitsareinstilledWetellthemthatitcanbedonethatweknowofhundredsthousandsofteachersattainingtremendoussuccessgothroughanordealEveryonehitsthewallinweekthreeintheclassroomemergetransformedbyprivilegedknowledgeOnceyouknowwhatweknow—thatkidsinpoorurbanareascanexcel—youcanaccomplishdifferentthingsandcanneverleavealumniformagrowingandinfluentialnetwork.IhavenotseenthesamezealwhentalkingtothoseontheequivalentprogrammeinEnglandTeachFirst.inwhichthemissionary-stylelanguageimportedfromAmericahadtobetoneddownbecauseitjustdidn’tsuittherestrainedEnglishstyle.ButcouldthatfavourbenecessaryforitssuccessChesteranalumtakesmetovisitthreeTFAcorpsmembersatamiddleschoolintheBronx.Theyareimpressiveyoungpeopleandtheirzealisevident.Twointendtostayinteaching;bothwanttoopencharterschools.OneaHispanicwomanisworkingoutwithafriendhowtoeducatemigrantHispaniclabourersinTexas;theotherwouldliketoopenagreencharterbutinthemeantimehehasacceptedajobwiththeKIPPchartergroupinNewarkNewJersey.Allthreearetired.TheirclassroomsarenotmuchliketherestoftheschoolwheretheyworkandtheirheroiceffortsareonlysupportedbyChesterandeachothernotbytheirco-workers.Thefirstyearwasunbelievablybadonetellsme.Somanyyearswithlowexpectationsmeantalotofresistancefromthekids.Eventuallytheysawthepowerandthegrowththeywerecapableof.Theauthorismostlikely
Directions:Writeanessayof160～200wordsbasedonthefollowingdrawings.Inyouressayyoushould: 1describethedrawingbriefly 2explainitsintendedmeaningandthen 3giveyourcomments. YoushouldwriteneatlyonANSWERSHEET2.
Scienceandpoliticsareinextricablylinked.AtascientificconferenceonclimatechangeheldthisweekinCopenhagenfourenvironmentalexpertsannouncedthatsealevelsappeartoberisingalmosttwiceasrapidlyashadbeenforecastbytheUnitedNationsjusttwoyearsago.46ThewarningisaimedatpoliticianswhowillmeetinthesamecityinDecembertodiscussthesamesubjectandperhapstothrashoutaninternationalagreementtocounterit. Thereasonfortherapidchangeinthepredictedriseinsealevelsisarapidincreaseintheinformationavailable.47In2007whentheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeconvenedbytheUNmadeitspredictionthatsealevelswouldrisebybetween18cmand59cmby2100alackofknowledgeabouthowthepolaricecapswerebehavingwasbehindmuchoftheuncertainty.Sincethentheyhavebeencloselymonitoredandtheresultsaredisturbing.BoththeGreenlandandtheAntarcticcapshavebeenmeltingatanacceleratingrate.Indeedscientistsnowreckonthatsealevelswillrisebybetween50eraand100eraby2100unlessactionistakentocurbclimatechange. 48KonradSteffenaprofessoroftheUniversityofColoradotoldtheconferencethatthissheetismeltingnotonlybecauseitiswarmerbutalsobecausewaterseepingthroughitscrevicesisbreakingitupwhoseeffecthadbeenneglectedintheearlierreport.TheimpactofthemeltingicehasbeenmeasuredbyJohnChurchoftheCentreforAustralianWeatherandClimateResearch.Hetoldtheconferencethatsatelliteandground-basedsystemsshowedthatsealevelshavebeenrisingmorerapidlysince1993.Heisconcernedthatmoreclimatechangecouldcauseafurtheraccelerationinthisrate. StefanofthePotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearchtoldtheconferencethat“basedonpastexperienceIexpectthatsea-levelrisewillaccelerateastheplanetgetshotter.”49HewassupportedinthisviewbythefourthexpertEricRignotoftheUniversityofCaliforniawhocalledfortheworld’sleaderstoslashtheemissionofcarbondioxideandothergreenhousegases. AdvancenegotiationsontheUNClimateChangeConferenceareduetobegininBonninjustoverafortnight’stime.Thescientistshopethattheirstartlingwarningswillchangetheoutcomeofthatpre-meetingmeeting.50Withmuchstilltoargueovertheyhopethataclearscientificleadwillbothhelptonarrowtheroomfordisagreementandgalvanizethedesiretogetatreatyagreed. 46
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.12
Foryearspediatriciansdidn’tworrymuchabouttreatinghypertensionintheirpatients.Afterallkidsgrowsofastit’shardkeepingupwiththeirshoessizeletalonetheirbloodpressure.Surehypertensioninadultsplacesthematgreaterriskofheartattackandstroke.Butnobodylikestheideaofstartingyoungstersonblood-pressuremedicinetheycouldwinduptakingtherestoftheirlives.Whoknowswhatpreviouslyunheard-ofsideeffectscouldcropupafterfiveorsixdecadesofdailyuse Therationalehasbeen:kidsgrowoutofsomanythings;maybethey’llgrowoutofthistoo. 41．Nowthoughcomeswordthathighbloodpressurecanbedestructiveeveninchildhood. 42．Whoismostatrisk Boysaremorethangirlsespeciallyboyswhoareoverweight.Theirheartworkssohardtoforcebloodthroughextralayersoffatthatitswallsgrowdenser.Thenafterdecadesofstrainingitgrowstoobigtopumpbloodverywell. 43．Howcanyoutellifyoursarelikethe670000Americanchildrenages10to18withhighbloodpressure It’snotthesortofthingyoucancatchbyputtingyourchild’sarminacuffatthefreemonitoringstationinyourlocalgrocery.Youshouldhaveatestdonebyadoctorwhowillconsultspecialtablesthatindicatethenormalrangeofbloodpressureforaparticularchild’sageheightandsex. 44．Abouthalfthecasesofhypertensionstemdirectlyfromkidsbeingoverweight. 45．Howcanyoudo Youcankeepyourchildrenfromjoiningtheirranksbyclearingthejunkfoodfromyourpantryandhookingyoukids—theearlierthebetter—onhealthyattractivesnakeslikefruitstryfreezingsomegrapes/orcarrotstickswithsalsa.Notonlywilltheyloweryourchildren’sbloodpressure:Thesefoodswillalsoboosttheirimmunesystemandunclogtheirplumbing. [A]Andtheproblemislikelytogrow.Overthepast30yearstheproportionofchildrenintheU.S.whoareoverweighthasdoubledfrom5%to11%or4.7millionkids. [B]AccordingtoarecentreportinthejournalCirculation19of30childrenwithhighbloodpressuredevelopedadangerousthickeningoftheheartmusclethatinadultsatleasthasbeenlinkedtoheartfailure.“Nooneknowsifthispatternholdstrueforyoungerpatientsaswell”saysDr.StephenDanielsapediatriccardiologistwholedthestudyatChildren’sHospitalMedicalCenterinCincinnatiOhio.“Butit’sworrisome.” [C]Feedyourchildrennutritiousfoodsthreetimesadaytokeephisimmunesystemhealthy.Makesurethemealsincludeallthefoodgroupstoensuretheyaregettingplentyofvitamins. [D]Fortunatelytheabnormalthickeningcanbespottedbyultrasound.Andinmostcasegettingthatbloodpressureundercontrol—throughweightlossandexerciseorasalastresortdrugtreatment—allowstheoverworkedmuscletoshrinktonormalsize. [E]Ifthedoctorfindsanabnormalresulthewillrepeatthetestoveraperiodofmonthstomakesurethereadingisn’tafake.He’llalsocheckwhetherotherconditionslikekidneydiseasecouldbethesourceofthetroublebecausehypertensionishardtobedetected.TheNationalHeartLungandBloodInstituterecommendsannualblood-pressurechecksforeverychildoverage3. [F]Highbloodpressureisn’tjustanissueforadults;keepingkidsbloodpressurelevelsinahealthyrangeisalsoimportant.InanewstudyreportedinHypertensionresearchersfoundthatincreasedexercisedurationamongkidsleadstolowerbloodpressurelevelshoweverthesamecannotbesaidforincreasedintensity. [G]MeanwhilemakesureyourkidsspendmoretimeontheplaygroundthanwiththeirPlayStation.Eveniftheydon’tshedapoundvigorousexercisewillhelpkeeptheirbloodvesselsniceandwideloweringtheirbloodpressure.Andofcoursethey’llbemorelikelytoeatlightandexerciseifyousetagoodexample. 42
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.20
OurvisittotheexcavationofaRomanfortonahillnearCoventrywasofmorethanarchaeologicalinterest.Theyear’sdighadbeenafruitfuloneandhadassembledevidenceofapermanentmilitarycampmuchlargerthanhadatfirstbeenconjectured.Weweregreetedonthesitebyagroupofexcavatorssomeofthemfillinginatrenchthathadyieldedanalmostcompletepotthedaybeforeothersenjoyingthelast-dayluxuryofacigaretteinthesunbutallhappytoexplainandtalkabouttheirwork.Ifwehadnotalreadyknownitnothingwouldhavesuggestedthatthiswasapartyofprisonersfromthenearbyprison.Thisisnotthefirsttimethatprisonlaborhasbeenusedinworkofthiskindbutheretheexperimentnowtwoyearsoldhasprovedoutstandinglysatisfactory.Fromthearchaeologists’pointofviewprisonersprovideasteadyforceofdisciplinedlaborthroughouttheentireseasonmentowhomitisaseriousday’sworkandnottherathercarefreeholidayjobthatittendstobefortheamateurarchaeologist.Newcomersarecomparativelyfewandcansoonbeinitiatedbythosealreadytrainedinthework.Prisonersmayalsobemoreaccustomedtoheavyworklikeshovelingandcartingsoilthanthemajorityofstudents.WhenCoventry’sKeeperofArchaeologywenttotheprisontoappealforhelphewasreceivedcautiouslybythemenbutwhentheimportanceoftheworkwasfullyunderstoodfarmorevolunteerswereforthcomingthancouldactuallybeemployed.Whentheygottoworkonthesiteandtheireffortsproducedpotteryandbuildingfoundationsinwhatuntillastyearhadbeenanordinaryfieldtheirenthusiasmgrewtilltheywouldsometimesworkthroughtheirlunchhourandteabreakandevencarryonintherainratherthansititoutinthehut.Thiswasundoubtedlybecausetheworkwasnotonlystrenuousbutabsorbingandcalledforconsiderableintelligence.Themenworkedalwaysunderprofessionalsupervisionbutastheseasonwentontheyneededlessguidanceandknewwhenanexpertshouldbesummoned.Disciplinaryproblemswerenegligible:themenwerecarefullyselectedfortheirgoodconductandworkingonapartylikethiswastoovaluableaprivilegetobethrownaway.TheKeeperofArchaeologysaidthatthiswasbyfarthemostsatisfactoryformoflaborthathehadeverhadandthatithadproducedresultsinquantityandqualitythatcouldnothavebeenachievedbyanyothermeans.Itcanbeassumedthatarchaeologists
Theprotectionofculturaldiversityfromapoliticalandeconomicpointofviewinfactbecamepressingwithglobalizationwhichischaracterizedbytheliberalizationonalargescaleofeconomicandcommercialexchangeandthuswhathasbeencalledthecommodificationofculture.Ithasbeennotedforinstancethatoverthepast20yearstradeinculturalgoodshasquadrupledandthenewinternationalrulesWTOOECDontradeareincreasinglyremovingStatesupportandprotectionmeasuresinfavourofnationalgoodsandservicesinthenameofmarketfreedomandfreetrade.ForthoseinfavourofthepromotionofculturaldiversitywhichincludesCanadaFranceandtheGroupof77groupofdevelopingcountriestheaimisabovealltoobtainfromtheUnitedStatestheguaranteethattheConventionontheProtectionandPromotionoftheDiversityofCulturalExpressionssignedbyUNESCOinNovember2005wouldnotbesubordinatedtointernationaltradeinstruments.IndeedfortheUnitedStatesandothersupportersoffreetradetheconventionisahadideaandthemeasuresreferredtoabovestemquitesimplyfromaninterventionistconceptionoftheStatewhichisnotlikelytofavourthemarket.Subsidiestoculturalenterprisestheimpositionofbroadcastquotasandrestrictionsonforeignownershipofthemediawouldfortheminterferewiththenaturaldevelopmentofthemarket.InadditioneventhoughitisnotofficialtheconventiononculturaldiversityisformanyAmericansanattempttounderminetheglobalsupremacyoftheiraudiovisualindustries.Ifthegeneralunderstandingofculturaldiversityisbasedmainlyonbinarydistinctionssuchasmodernculture/localculturetherealityofculturaldiversityisnotbinarybutstemsfromrespectforandacceptanceofdifferencesdialogueandthequestforsharedvaluesinordertoleavebehindthemonologismthatisafeatureoftheinformationsociety.Inthissettingdiversityisconsequentlyawayofapproachingthestructureofhowwelivetogetherbasedontheacceptanceofapluralvisionoftheworld.Wecanseethenthatculturaldiversityisperceivedhereastheintegrationratherthanthesuperpositionorjuxtapositionofculturesandthattheinformationsocietyinwhichitisexpressedisaboveallasocietyofsharedknowledge.AccordingtothetextWTO
Everycultureattemptstocreateauniverseofdiscourseforitsmembersawayinwhichpeoplecaninterprettheirexperienceandconveyittooneanother.Withoutacommonsystemofcodifyingsensationslifewouldbeabsurdandalleffortstosharemeaningsdoomedtofailure.Thisuniverseofdiscourse—oneofthemostpreciousofallculturallegacies—istransmittedtoeachgenerationinpartconsciouslyandinpartunconsciously.Parentsandteachersgiveexplicitinstructioninitbypraisingorcriticizingcertainwaysofdressingofthinkingofgesturingofrespondingtotheactsofothers.Butthemostsignificantaspectsofanyculturalcodemaybeconveyedimplicitlynotbyruleorlessonbutthroughmodelingbehavior.Achildissurroundedbyotherswhothroughthemereconsistencyoftheiractionsasmalesandfemalesmothersandfatherssalesclerksandpolicemendisplaywhatisappropriatebehavior.Thusthegrammarofanycultureissentandreceivedlargelyunconsciouslymakingone’sownculturalassumptionsandbiasesdifficulttorecognize.Theyseemsoobviouslyrightthattheyrequirenoexplanation.InTheOpenandClosedMindMiltonRokeachposestheproblemofculturalunderstandinginitssimplestformbutonethatcanreadilydemonstratethecomplicationofcommunicationbetweencultures.ItiscalledtheDennyDoodlebugProblem.Readersaregivenalltherulesthatgovernthisculture:DennyisananimalthatalwaysfacesNorthandcanmoveonlybyjumping;hecanjumplargedistancesorsmalldistancesbutcanchangedirectiononlyafterjumpingfourtimesinanydirection;hecanjumpNorthSouthEastorWestbutnotdiagonally.Uponconcludingajumphismasterplacessomefoodthreefeetdirectlywestofhim.SurveyingthesituationDennyconcludeshemustjumpfourtimestoreachthefood.Nomoreorless.Andheisright.Allthereaderhastodoistoexplainthecircumstancesthatmakehisconclusioncorrect.Thelargemajorityofpeoplewhoattemptthisproblemfailtosolveitdespitethefactthattheyaregivenalltherulesthatcontrolbehaviorinthisculture.IfthereisdifficultyingettinginsidethesimplisticworldofDennyDoodlebug—wheretheculturalcodehasalreadybeenbrokenandhandedtous—imaginethecomplexityofcomprehendingbehaviorinsocietieswhosecodeshavenotyetbeendecipheredandwhereeventhosewhoobeythesecodesareonlyvaguelyawareandcanrarelydescribetheunderlyingsourcesoftheirownactions.Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethat
TeachforAmericaTFAwasfoundedbyWendyKoppin1990.Itisanon-profitorganisationthatrecruitstop-notchgraduatesfromeliteinstitutionsandgetsthemtoteachfortwoyearsinstrugglingstateschoolsinpoorareas.Ihadthoughttheprogrammewasaboutgettingmorehigh-qualityteachers—butthatitappearsisasecondarybenefit.Thisisaboutenlistingtheenergyofourcountry’sfutureleadersinitslong-termeducationalneedsandeliminatinginequityWendyexplains.It’sgreatifcorpsmembersasTFAcallsitsactiveteachersstayintheclassroom—andmanydoandrisequicklythroughtheranks.Butthealumsasshecallsthosewhohavefinishedtheirtwo-yearteachingwhodon’tstayinschoolsoftengoontoleadinotherfieldsmeaningthatincreasingnumbersofinfluentialpeopleinallwalksoflifelearnthatitispossibletoteachsuccessfullyinlow-incomecommunitiesandjustwhatittakes.Itmeansyourealisethatwecansolvethisproblem.AsshecontinuestotalkIrealisethatTFAis—inthebestpossiblesense—acult.IthasitsownlanguagecorpsmembersalumsrecruitsareinstilledWetellthemthatitcanbedonethatweknowofhundredsthousandsofteachersattainingtremendoussuccessgothroughanordealEveryonehitsthewallinweekthreeintheclassroomemergetransformedbyprivilegedknowledgeOnceyouknowwhatweknow—thatkidsinpoorurbanareascanexcel—youcanaccomplishdifferentthingsandcanneverleavealumniformagrowingandinfluentialnetwork.IhavenotseenthesamezealwhentalkingtothoseontheequivalentprogrammeinEnglandTeachFirst.inwhichthemissionary-stylelanguageimportedfromAmericahadtobetoneddownbecauseitjustdidn’tsuittherestrainedEnglishstyle.ButcouldthatfavourbenecessaryforitssuccessChesteranalumtakesmetovisitthreeTFAcorpsmembersatamiddleschoolintheBronx.Theyareimpressiveyoungpeopleandtheirzealisevident.Twointendtostayinteaching;bothwanttoopencharterschools.OneaHispanicwomanisworkingoutwithafriendhowtoeducatemigrantHispaniclabourersinTexas;theotherwouldliketoopenagreencharterbutinthemeantimehehasacceptedajobwiththeKIPPchartergroupinNewarkNewJersey.Allthreearetired.TheirclassroomsarenotmuchliketherestoftheschoolwheretheyworkandtheirheroiceffortsareonlysupportedbyChesterandeachothernotbytheirco-workers.Thefirstyearwasunbelievablybadonetellsme.Somanyyearswithlowexpectationsmeantalotofresistancefromthekids.Eventuallytheysawthepowerandthegrowththeywerecapableof.WhatdoestheauthorthinkoftheTeachFirstprogrammeinEngland
DuBoiswasasociologicalandeducationalpioneerwhochallengedtheestablishedsystemofeducationthattendedtorestrictratherthantoadvancetheprogressofblackAmericans.HechallengedwhatiscalledtheTuskegeemachineofBookerT.WashingtontheleadingeducationalspokespersonoftheblacksintheU.S..AsasociologistandhistorianDuBoiscalledforamoredeterminedandactivistleadershipthanWashingtonprovided.UnlikeWashingtonwhoserootswereinsouthernblackagricultureDuBois’scareerspannedbothsidesoftheMason-DixonLine.HewasanativeofMassachusettsreceivedhisundergraduateeducationfromFiskUniversityinNashvilledidhisgraduatestudyatHarvardUniversityanddirectedtheAtlantaUniversityStudiesofBlackAmericanLifeintheSouth.DuBoisapproachedtheproblemofracialrelationsintheUnitedStatesfromtwodimensions:asascholarlyresearcherandasanactivistforcivilrights.AmonghisworkswasthefamousempiricalsociologicalstudyThePhiladelphiaNegro:ASocialStudyinwhichheexaminedthatcity’sblackpopulationandmaderecommendationsfortheschoolsystem.DuBois’sPhiladelphiastudywasthepioneerworkonurbanblacksinAmerica.DuBoishadalongandactivecareerasaleaderinthecivilrightsmovement.HehelpedtoorganizetheNiagaraMovementin1905whichledtotheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeopleNAACPestablishedin1909.From1910until1934DuBoiseditedTheCrisisthemajorjournaloftheNAACP.IntermsofitseducationalpolicytheNAACPpositionwasthatallAmericanchildrenandyouthshouldhavegenuineequalityofeducationalopportunity.ThispolicywhichDuBoishelpedtoformulatestressedthefollowingthemes:1publicschoolingshouldbefreeandcompulsoryforallAmericanchildren;2secondaryschoolingshouldbeprovidedforallyouth;3highereducationshouldnotbemonopolizedbyanyspecialclassorrace.AsaleaderineducationDuBoischallengednotonlythetraditionofracialsegregationintheschoolsbutalsotheaccommodationistideologyofBookerT.Washington.ThemajordifferencebetweenthetwomenwasthatWashingtonsoughtchangethatwasevolutionaryinnatureanddidnotupsetthesocialorderwhereasDuBoisdemandedimmediatechange.DuBoisbelievedineducatedleadershipforblacksandhedevelopedaconceptreferredtoasthetalentedtenthaccordingtowhich10percentoftheblackpopulationwouldreceiveatraditionalcollegeeducationinpreparationforleadership.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.6
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.18
Scienceandpoliticsareinextricablylinked.AtascientificconferenceonclimatechangeheldthisweekinCopenhagenfourenvironmentalexpertsannouncedthatsealevelsappeartoberisingalmosttwiceasrapidlyashadbeenforecastbytheUnitedNationsjusttwoyearsago.46ThewarningisaimedatpoliticianswhowillmeetinthesamecityinDecembertodiscussthesamesubjectandperhapstothrashoutaninternationalagreementtocounterit. Thereasonfortherapidchangeinthepredictedriseinsealevelsisarapidincreaseintheinformationavailable.47In2007whentheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeconvenedbytheUNmadeitspredictionthatsealevelswouldrisebybetween18cmand59cmby2100alackofknowledgeabouthowthepolaricecapswerebehavingwasbehindmuchoftheuncertainty.Sincethentheyhavebeencloselymonitoredandtheresultsaredisturbing.BoththeGreenlandandtheAntarcticcapshavebeenmeltingatanacceleratingrate.Indeedscientistsnowreckonthatsealevelswillrisebybetween50eraand100eraby2100unlessactionistakentocurbclimatechange. 48KonradSteffenaprofessoroftheUniversityofColoradotoldtheconferencethatthissheetismeltingnotonlybecauseitiswarmerbutalsobecausewaterseepingthroughitscrevicesisbreakingitupwhoseeffecthadbeenneglectedintheearlierreport.TheimpactofthemeltingicehasbeenmeasuredbyJohnChurchoftheCentreforAustralianWeatherandClimateResearch.Hetoldtheconferencethatsatelliteandground-basedsystemsshowedthatsealevelshavebeenrisingmorerapidlysince1993.Heisconcernedthatmoreclimatechangecouldcauseafurtheraccelerationinthisrate. StefanofthePotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearchtoldtheconferencethat“basedonpastexperienceIexpectthatsea-levelrisewillaccelerateastheplanetgetshotter.”49HewassupportedinthisviewbythefourthexpertEricRignotoftheUniversityofCaliforniawhocalledfortheworld’sleaderstoslashtheemissionofcarbondioxideandothergreenhousegases. AdvancenegotiationsontheUNClimateChangeConferenceareduetobegininBonninjustoverafortnight’stime.Thescientistshopethattheirstartlingwarningswillchangetheoutcomeofthatpre-meetingmeeting.50Withmuchstilltoargueovertheyhopethataclearscientificleadwillbothhelptonarrowtheroomfordisagreementandgalvanizethedesiretogetatreatyagreed. 50
HenricIbsenauthoroftheplayADoll’sHouseinwhichaprettyhelplesshousewifeabandonsherhusbandandchildrentoseekamoreseriouslifewouldsurelyhaveapproved.FromJanuary1st2008allpubliccompaniesinNorwayareobligedtoensurethatatleast40%oftheirboarddirectorsarewomen.Mostfirmshaveobeyedthelawwhichwaspassedin2003.Butabout75outofthe480orsocompaniesitaffectsarestilltoomaleforthegovernment’sliking.TheywillshortlyreceivealetterinformingthemthattheyhaveuntiltheendofFebruarytoactorfacethelegalconsequences—whichcouldincludebeingdissolved.Beforethelawwasproposedabout7%ofboardmembersinNorwaywerefemaleaccordingtotheCentreforCorporateDiversity.Thenumberhassincejumpedto36%.Thatisfarhigherthantheaverageof9%forbigcompaniesacrossEuropeorAmerica’s15%fortheFortune500.Norway’sstockexchangeanditsmainbusinesslobbyopposethelawasdomanybusinessmen.IamagainstquotasforwomenormenasamatterofprinciplesaysSverreMunckheadofinternationaloperationsatamediafirm.Boardmembersofpubliccompaniesshouldbechosensolelyonthebasisofmeritandexperiencehesays.Severalfirmshaveevengivenuptheirpublicstatusinordertoescapethenewlaw.Companieshavehadtorecruitabout1000womeninfouryears.Manycomplainthatithasbeendifficulttofindexperiencedcandidates.Becauseofthissomeofthebestwomenhavecollectedasmanyas25-35directorshipseachandareknowninNorwegianbusinesscirclesasthegoldenskirts.OnereasonforthescarcityisthattherearefairlyfewwomeninmanagementinNorwegiancompanies—theyoccupyaround15%ofseniorpositions.Ithasbeenparticularlyhardforfirmsintheoiltechnologyandfinancialindustriestofindwomenwithenoughexperience.Somepeopleworrythattheirrelativelackofexperiencemaykeepwomenquietonboardsandthatinturncouldmeanthatboardsmightbecomelessabletoholdmanagerstoaccount.RecenthistoryinNorwayhoweversuggeststhattherightwomencanmakestrongdirectors.WomenfeelmorecompelledthanmentodotheirhomeworksaysMs.RekstenSkaugenwhowasvotedNorway’schairmanoftheyearfor2007.Theauthorattributesthephenomenonofgoldenskirtsto
Lowlevelsofliteracyandnumeracyhaveadamagingimpactonalmosteveryaspectofadultsaccordingtoasurveypublishedyesterdaywhichoffers1ofadevelopingunderclass.Testsand2withhundredsofpeopleborninaweekin1958graphicallyillustratedthe3ofeducationalunderachievement.Theeffectscanbeseeninunemploymentfamily4lowincomesdepressionandsocialinactivity. Thosewholeftschoolat16withpoorbasicskillshadbeenemployedforuptofouryearslessthangoodreaders5theyreached37.ProfessorJohnBynnerofCityUniversitywhocarriedtheresearchsaidthattoday’s6teenagerswouldevenencountergreaterproblemsbecausethesupplyof7jobshadshrunk. Almostonefifthofthe1700peopleinterviewedforyesterday’sreporthadpoorliteracyandalmosthalf8withinnumeracyaproportion9othersurveysfortheBasicSkillsAgency.Somecouldnotreadachild’sbookandmostfounddifficult10writteninstruction. Poorreadersweretwiceaslikelytobealowwageandfourtimeslikelytoliveinahouseholdwherepartnersworked.Womeninthis11werefivetimesaslikelytobe12depressed13bothtendedtofeeltheyhadnocontrolovertheirlivesandtotrustothers14. Thosewhohadlowliteracyandnumeracywereseldom15inanycommunityorganizationandlesslikelythanothersto16inageneralelection.Therehadbeenno17intheliterarylevelof18reportingproblems. AlanWellstheagency’sdirectorsaid:“Theresultsemphasizethedangersofdevelopinganunderclasspeoplewhowereoutofwork19depressedandoftenlabeledthemselvesas20.Thereisacircleofmarginalizationwiththediceagainstthesepeopleandtheirfamilies.” ReadthefollowingtextChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmark[A][B][C]or[D]onANSWERSHEET1.10
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