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Thevolcanointhecornfieldgrewuntilitwasbiggerthanthecornfield!41______PeoplecalledthevolcanotheLittleMonsterbecauseitgrewsofast.Scientistscamefromallovertheworldtostudyitandwatchitgrow.Itisnotoftenthatpeoplegetachancetowatchavolcanofromtheverybeginning. Mostofthevolcanoeshavebeenhereforaverylongtime.Somehavebeenheresolongthatnowtheyarecold.Theyarecalleddeadvolcanoes.Theyhavestoppedthrowingoutfireandmeltedrockandsmoke.Itissafetowalkonthem.Farmsareplowedonthequietslopesandpeoplehavebuilthousesthere. Somevolcanoeshavestoppedthrowingouthotrockbuttheystillsmokealittlenowandthen.Theyare"sleeping"volcanoes.Sometimetheymay"wakeup". 42______. Todayvolcanoesarenotsodangerousforpeopleastheywerealongtimeago.Nowweknowmoreaboutwhyvolcanoesdowhattheydoandwecanusuallytellwhentheyaregoingtodoit.43______. Peopleusedtothinkdragonsundertheearthcausedvolcanoes.Theysaidthesmokethatpuffedabovethegroundwasthedragon’sbreath.Theysaidtheearthquakeswerecausedbythedragon’smovingarounddownintheearth.Nowweknowthatthisisnottrue. Anotherthingweknowaboutvolcanoesisthattheydon’thappenjustanywhere.44______.Scientistsknowwheretheseplacesareandmapshavebeenmadetoleteverybodyknow. Therearedifferentkindsofvolcanoes.Someexplodesoviolentlythattherockgoeshighintotheairandfallsmilesaway.Avolcanomayshootoutashessohighthattheyfloatallthewayaroundtheworld.Theyhavemadethesunsetsgreenandthesnowpurple. 45______. Oneverytallvolcanostaysfieryredatthetopallthetime.Itisluckythatthevolcanoisneartheocean.Sailorscanuseitforalighthouse. [A]Othervolcanoesaremoregentle.Thehotlavarisesintheirconesandoverflowsrollingslowlydownthemountainsidewhereitbecomescoolandhard. [B]Blacksmokepuffedout.Hotashesfelllikeblacksnowflakes.Hotrockandfireandlavashotout. [C]Smokepuffedupandrockstartedpoppingupoutofacrackthatopenedintheground. [D]AvolcanonamedVesuviussleptforathousandyears.Butitwokeupandthrewoutsomuchhotmeltedrockthatitburiedthebuildingsoftwocities. [E]Beforeasleepingvolcanowakesupitusuallymakesanoiselikefarawaythunderandthegroundshakesinsmallearthquakes.Peoplearewarnedandhavetimetogetawaysafely. [F]Avolcanostartsfromaholeinthegroundfromwhichhotrockandsmokeandsteamcomeout.Farfarunderthegrounditissohotthatrockmelts.Thishotmeltedrockorlavaissome-timespushedoutoftheearththroughaholeoracrackintheground.Thesteaminsidetheearthpushestherockout. [G]Therearecertainplacesundertheearthwheretherockisbrokeninawaythatletsthesteamandhotrockescapetotheoutsidemoreeasily. 45
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 1
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 13
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 11
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 9
Theterm"nationalism"isgenerallyusedtodescribetwophenomena:1themembersofanationcareabouttheirnationalidentityand2thatthemembersofanationseektoachieveorsustainself-determination. Itistraditionalthereforetodistinguishnationsfromstates—whereasanationoftenconsistsofanethnicorculturalcommunityastateisapoliticalentitywithahighdegreeofsovereignty.Whilemanystatesarenationsinsomesensetherearemanynationswhicharenotfullysovereignstates.AsanexampletheNativeAmericanIroquoisconstituteanationbutnotastatesincetheydonotpossesstherequisitepoliticalauthorityovertheirinternalorexternalaffairs.IfthemembersoftheIroquoisnationweretostrivetoformasovereignstateintheefforttopreservetheiridentityasapeopletheywouldbeexhibitingastate—focusednationalism. Nationalismhaslongbeenignoredasatopicinpoliticalphilosophywrittenoffasarelicfrombygonetimes.Ithasonlyrecentlycomeintothefocusofphilosophicaldebate.Thesurgeofnationalismusuallypresentsamorallyambivalentandforthisreasonoftenfascinatingpicture."Nationalawakenings"andstrugglesforpoliticalindependenceareoftenbothheroicandinhumanlycruel;theformationofarecognizablynationalstateoftenrespondstodeeppopularsentimentbutcananddoessometimesbringinitswakeinhumanconsequencesincludingviolentexpulsionand"cleansing"ofnon-nationalsallthewaytoorganizedmassmurder.Themoraldebateonnationalismreflectsadeepmoraltensionbetweensolidaritywithoppressednationalgroupsontheonehandandrepulsioninthefaceofcrimesperpetratedinthenameofnationalismontheother. Nationalismmaymanifestitselfaspartofofficialstateideologyorasapopularnon-statemovementandmaybeexpressedalongcivicethnicculturalreligiousorideologicallines.Theseself-definitionsofthenationareusedtoclassifytypesofnationalism.Howeversuchcategoriesarenotmutuallyexclusiveandmanynationalistmovementscombinesomeoralloftheseelementstovaryingdegrees.Nationalistmovementscanalsobeclassifiedbyothercriteriasuchasscaleandlocation. Nationalismdoesnotnecessarilyimplyabeliefinthesuperiorityofoneraceoverothersbutinpracticemanynationalistssupportracialprotectionismorracialsupremacy.Suchracismistypicallybaseduponpreferenceorsuperiorityoftheindigenousraceofthenation. Paragraph4talksabouttheissueofnationalismfromtheperspectiveof
Weassumedethicsneededthesealofcertaintyelseitwasnon-rational.Andcertaintywastobeproducedbyadeductivemodel:thecorrectactionswerederivablefromclassicalfirstprinciplesorahierarchicallyrankedpantheonofprinciples.Thismodelthoughisbankrupt. Isuggestwethinkofethicsasanalogoustolanguageusage.Therearenounivocalrulesofgrammarandstylewhichuniquelydeterminethebestsentenceforaparticularsituation.Norislanguageusageuniversalizable.Althoughasentenceorphraseiswarrantedinonecaseitdoesnotmeanitisautomaticallyappropriateinlikecircumstances.Nonethelesslanguageusageisnotsubjective. Thisshouldnotsurpriseusintheleast.Allintellectualpursuitsarerelativisticinjustthesesenses.Politicalsciencepsychologychemistryandphysicsarenotcertainbuttheyarenotsubjectiveeither.AsIseeitethicalinquiryproceedlikethis:wearetaughtmoralprinciplesbyparentsteachersandsocietyatlarge.Aswegrowolderwebecomeexposedtocompetingviews.Thesemayleadustoreevaluatepresentlyheldbeliefs.Orwemayfindourselvesinexplicablymakingcertainvaluationspossiblybecauseofinheritedaltruistictendencies.Wemay"learnthehardway"thatsomeactionsgenerateunacceptableconsequences.Orwemayreflectuponourownandothers’"theories"orpatternsofbehavioranddecidetheyareinconsistent.Theresultingviewsare"tested";weactaswethinkweshouldandevaluatetheconsequencesofthoseactionsonourselvesandonothers.Wetherebycorrectourmistakesinlightofthetestoftime. Ofcoursepeoplemakedifferentmoraljudgments;ofcoursewecannotresolvethesedifferencesbyusingsomealgorithmwhichisitselfbeyondjudgement.Wehavenovantagepointoutsidehumanexperiencewherewecanjudgerightandwronggoodandbad.Butthenwedon’thaveavantagepointfromwherewecanbephilosophicalrelativistseither. Weareleftwithintherealworldtryingtocopewithourselveswitheachotherwiththeworldandwithourownfallibility.Wedonothaveallthemoralanswers;nordowehaveanalgorithmtodiscernthoseanswers.Neitherdowepossessanalgorithmfordeterminingcorrectlanguageusagebutthatdoesnotmakeusthrowupourhandsindespairbecausewecannolongercommunicate. IfweunderstandethicsinthiswaywecanseeIthinktherealvalueofethicaltheory.Somepeopletalkasifethicaltheoriesgiveusmoralprescriptions.Theythinkweshouldapplyethicalprinciplesaswe.wouldapoultice:afterdiagnosingtheailmentweapplytheappropriatedressing.Butthatisamistake.Notheoryprovidesasetofabstractsolutionstoapplystraightforwardly.Ethicaltheoriesareimportantnotbecausetheysolveallmoraldilemmasbutbecausetheyhelpusnoticesalientfeaturesofmoralproblemsandhelpusunderstandthoseproblemsincontext. Itisimpliedinthepassagethatarelativisticviewofethnics
Theterm"nationalism"isgenerallyusedtodescribetwophenomena:1themembersofanationcareabouttheirnationalidentityand2thatthemembersofanationseektoachieveorsustainself-determination. Itistraditionalthereforetodistinguishnationsfromstates—whereasanationoftenconsistsofanethnicorculturalcommunityastateisapoliticalentitywithahighdegreeofsovereignty.Whilemanystatesarenationsinsomesensetherearemanynationswhicharenotfullysovereignstates.AsanexampletheNativeAmericanIroquoisconstituteanationbutnotastatesincetheydonotpossesstherequisitepoliticalauthorityovertheirinternalorexternalaffairs.IfthemembersoftheIroquoisnationweretostrivetoformasovereignstateintheefforttopreservetheiridentityasapeopletheywouldbeexhibitingastate—focusednationalism. Nationalismhaslongbeenignoredasatopicinpoliticalphilosophywrittenoffasarelicfrombygonetimes.Ithasonlyrecentlycomeintothefocusofphilosophicaldebate.Thesurgeofnationalismusuallypresentsamorallyambivalentandforthisreasonoftenfascinatingpicture."Nationalawakenings"andstrugglesforpoliticalindependenceareoftenbothheroicandinhumanlycruel;theformationofarecognizablynationalstateoftenrespondstodeeppopularsentimentbutcananddoessometimesbringinitswakeinhumanconsequencesincludingviolentexpulsionand"cleansing"ofnon-nationalsallthewaytoorganizedmassmurder.Themoraldebateonnationalismreflectsadeepmoraltensionbetweensolidaritywithoppressednationalgroupsontheonehandandrepulsioninthefaceofcrimesperpetratedinthenameofnationalismontheother. Nationalismmaymanifestitselfaspartofofficialstateideologyorasapopularnon-statemovementandmaybeexpressedalongcivicethnicculturalreligiousorideologicallines.Theseself-definitionsofthenationareusedtoclassifytypesofnationalism.Howeversuchcategoriesarenotmutuallyexclusiveandmanynationalistmovementscombinesomeoralloftheseelementstovaryingdegrees.Nationalistmovementscanalsobeclassifiedbyothercriteriasuchasscaleandlocation. Nationalismdoesnotnecessarilyimplyabeliefinthesuperiorityofoneraceoverothersbutinpracticemanynationalistssupportracialprotectionismorracialsupremacy.Suchracismistypicallybaseduponpreferenceorsuperiorityoftheindigenousraceofthenation. TheexampleofNativeAmericanIroquoisisusedinparagraph2to
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 9
Thevolcanointhecornfieldgrewuntilitwasbiggerthanthecornfield!41______PeoplecalledthevolcanotheLittleMonsterbecauseitgrewsofast.Scientistscamefromallovertheworldtostudyitandwatchitgrow.Itisnotoftenthatpeoplegetachancetowatchavolcanofromtheverybeginning. Mostofthevolcanoeshavebeenhereforaverylongtime.Somehavebeenheresolongthatnowtheyarecold.Theyarecalleddeadvolcanoes.Theyhavestoppedthrowingoutfireandmeltedrockandsmoke.Itissafetowalkonthem.Farmsareplowedonthequietslopesandpeoplehavebuilthousesthere. Somevolcanoeshavestoppedthrowingouthotrockbuttheystillsmokealittlenowandthen.Theyare"sleeping"volcanoes.Sometimetheymay"wakeup". 42______. Todayvolcanoesarenotsodangerousforpeopleastheywerealongtimeago.Nowweknowmoreaboutwhyvolcanoesdowhattheydoandwecanusuallytellwhentheyaregoingtodoit.43______. Peopleusedtothinkdragonsundertheearthcausedvolcanoes.Theysaidthesmokethatpuffedabovethegroundwasthedragon’sbreath.Theysaidtheearthquakeswerecausedbythedragon’smovingarounddownintheearth.Nowweknowthatthisisnottrue. Anotherthingweknowaboutvolcanoesisthattheydon’thappenjustanywhere.44______.Scientistsknowwheretheseplacesareandmapshavebeenmadetoleteverybodyknow. Therearedifferentkindsofvolcanoes.Someexplodesoviolentlythattherockgoeshighintotheairandfallsmilesaway.Avolcanomayshootoutashessohighthattheyfloatallthewayaroundtheworld.Theyhavemadethesunsetsgreenandthesnowpurple. 45______. Oneverytallvolcanostaysfieryredatthetopallthetime.Itisluckythatthevolcanoisneartheocean.Sailorscanuseitforalighthouse. [A]Othervolcanoesaremoregentle.Thehotlavarisesintheirconesandoverflowsrollingslowlydownthemountainsidewhereitbecomescoolandhard. [B]Blacksmokepuffedout.Hotashesfelllikeblacksnowflakes.Hotrockandfireandlavashotout. [C]Smokepuffedupandrockstartedpoppingupoutofacrackthatopenedintheground. [D]AvolcanonamedVesuviussleptforathousandyears.Butitwokeupandthrewoutsomuchhotmeltedrockthatitburiedthebuildingsoftwocities. [E]Beforeasleepingvolcanowakesupitusuallymakesanoiselikefarawaythunderandthegroundshakesinsmallearthquakes.Peoplearewarnedandhavetimetogetawaysafely. [F]Avolcanostartsfromaholeinthegroundfromwhichhotrockandsmokeandsteamcomeout.Farfarunderthegrounditissohotthatrockmelts.Thishotmeltedrockorlavaissome-timespushedoutoftheearththroughaholeoracrackintheground.Thesteaminsidetheearthpushestherockout. [G]Therearecertainplacesundertheearthwheretherockisbrokeninawaythatletsthesteamandhotrockescapetotheoutsidemoreeasily. 41
Directions: Havingfinishedhisend-of-termexamsauniversitystudenthasgonestraighthomewithoutsayinggoodbyetohisroommate. Writealetterexplainingthesituationtothelatterandinvitehimhomeduringthevacation. Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyourownnameattheendoftheletter.Use"LiMing"instead.Youdonotneedtowritetheaddress.
Rarelydomajordiseaseshaveasinglecause.Theyareusuallytheresultofacomplexinteractionbetweenmanyfactorsincludinggeneticenvironmentalandlifestylecomponents.Manymediareportshowevercanteadustobelievethatifwegaveupsomethingthatwemightotherwiseenjoywecouldcompletelyescapethatparticularaffliction. Clearlythisisnotthecase.Vegetariansdieofcancerofthecolon结肠.Teetotallersdieoflivercomplaintsincludingcirrhosis硬化.Peoplewhonevergooutinthesuncontractskinmelanomas黑素瘤.Alwaysthereareotherfactorsatworkthanthesingleelementbeingexaminedinascientificstudy. Quiteoftentheallegedbenefitsofaparticularnutritionalelementaretheresultnotsomuchoftheelementitselfbutofthelifestyleandgeneraldietofthepeoplewhoconsumeitmost.Peoplewhoeatlotsof"healthy"foodsincludingfibercarrotsbroccolietc.alsotendtodrinklessalcoholtakemoreexerciseavoidtoomanyfattyfoodsandsmokeless.Onlywhenastudycanruleoutalloftheseotherfactorsandoftenwedonotknowwhatthesefactorsmightbecanwesaythatthereisacausallinkbetweentwothings.Thatisnottosaythatthingslikefiberandbroccolihavenobeneficialeffectsatall.Butthosewithsedentarylifestylescannotexpectthesefoodstomakethemhealthy. Thereishoweveronethingwhichincreasesthelikelihoodofdyingrelativelyyoungevenwhenalloftheotherfactorshavebeentakenintoaccount.Itisoneofthebiggestkillersevenamongthosewholeadlifestyleswhichbyanycriteriaareclearlyhealthyones.Thissingleincontrovertibleriskfactoristhatofbeingpoor.RecentreportfromtheCancerResearchCampaignsuggestedthat12700deathscouldhavebeenavoidedbetween1986and1990ifinequalitiesincancercaredidnotexistinEnglandandWales.ComparingcancersurvivalratesthestudyfoundthatEnglandandWalesfaredunfavorablywithEuropeandtheUSbutthemostaffluentregionsofthesetwocountriesexhibitedsimilarfigurestotheEuropeanaverage. InanattempttocounterthisdisparitythegovernmenthasannouncedplansfortheprovisionofHealthActionZoneswhichseektoencouragegreatercooperationbetweenhealthandsocialservicestargetingbothruralandinnercityareas.Theemphasisofthisnewschemehoweverappearstofocusoninadequacieswithinhealtheducationintheseareasratherthanattackingthebroaderissuesofsocialinequality. AccordingtotheauthortoreducecancerdeathsinEnglandandWalesthegovernmentshould
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 7
Weassumedethicsneededthesealofcertaintyelseitwasnon-rational.Andcertaintywastobeproducedbyadeductivemodel:thecorrectactionswerederivablefromclassicalfirstprinciplesorahierarchicallyrankedpantheonofprinciples.Thismodelthoughisbankrupt. Isuggestwethinkofethicsasanalogoustolanguageusage.Therearenounivocalrulesofgrammarandstylewhichuniquelydeterminethebestsentenceforaparticularsituation.Norislanguageusageuniversalizable.Althoughasentenceorphraseiswarrantedinonecaseitdoesnotmeanitisautomaticallyappropriateinlikecircumstances.Nonethelesslanguageusageisnotsubjective. Thisshouldnotsurpriseusintheleast.Allintellectualpursuitsarerelativisticinjustthesesenses.Politicalsciencepsychologychemistryandphysicsarenotcertainbuttheyarenotsubjectiveeither.AsIseeitethicalinquiryproceedlikethis:wearetaughtmoralprinciplesbyparentsteachersandsocietyatlarge.Aswegrowolderwebecomeexposedtocompetingviews.Thesemayleadustoreevaluatepresentlyheldbeliefs.Orwemayfindourselvesinexplicablymakingcertainvaluationspossiblybecauseofinheritedaltruistictendencies.Wemay"learnthehardway"thatsomeactionsgenerateunacceptableconsequences.Orwemayreflectuponourownandothers’"theories"orpatternsofbehavioranddecidetheyareinconsistent.Theresultingviewsare"tested";weactaswethinkweshouldandevaluatetheconsequencesofthoseactionsonourselvesandonothers.Wetherebycorrectourmistakesinlightofthetestoftime. Ofcoursepeoplemakedifferentmoraljudgments;ofcoursewecannotresolvethesedifferencesbyusingsomealgorithmwhichisitselfbeyondjudgement.Wehavenovantagepointoutsidehumanexperiencewherewecanjudgerightandwronggoodandbad.Butthenwedon’thaveavantagepointfromwherewecanbephilosophicalrelativistseither. Weareleftwithintherealworldtryingtocopewithourselveswitheachotherwiththeworldandwithourownfallibility.Wedonothaveallthemoralanswers;nordowehaveanalgorithmtodiscernthoseanswers.Neitherdowepossessanalgorithmfordeterminingcorrectlanguageusagebutthatdoesnotmakeusthrowupourhandsindespairbecausewecannolongercommunicate. IfweunderstandethicsinthiswaywecanseeIthinktherealvalueofethicaltheory.Somepeopletalkasifethicaltheoriesgiveusmoralprescriptions.Theythinkweshouldapplyethicalprinciplesaswe.wouldapoultice:afterdiagnosingtheailmentweapplytheappropriatedressing.Butthatisamistake.Notheoryprovidesasetofabstractsolutionstoapplystraightforwardly.Ethicaltheoriesareimportantnotbecausetheysolveallmoraldilemmasbutbecausetheyhelpusnoticesalientfeaturesofmoralproblemsandhelpusunderstandthoseproblemsincontext. Inwhatwayisethicssimilartolanguageuse
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 5
Rarelydomajordiseaseshaveasinglecause.Theyareusuallytheresultofacomplexinteractionbetweenmanyfactorsincludinggeneticenvironmentalandlifestylecomponents.Manymediareportshowevercanteadustobelievethatifwegaveupsomethingthatwemightotherwiseenjoywecouldcompletelyescapethatparticularaffliction. Clearlythisisnotthecase.Vegetariansdieofcancerofthecolon结肠.Teetotallersdieoflivercomplaintsincludingcirrhosis硬化.Peoplewhonevergooutinthesuncontractskinmelanomas黑素瘤.Alwaysthereareotherfactorsatworkthanthesingleelementbeingexaminedinascientificstudy. Quiteoftentheallegedbenefitsofaparticularnutritionalelementaretheresultnotsomuchoftheelementitselfbutofthelifestyleandgeneraldietofthepeoplewhoconsumeitmost.Peoplewhoeatlotsof"healthy"foodsincludingfibercarrotsbroccolietc.alsotendtodrinklessalcoholtakemoreexerciseavoidtoomanyfattyfoodsandsmokeless.Onlywhenastudycanruleoutalloftheseotherfactorsandoftenwedonotknowwhatthesefactorsmightbecanwesaythatthereisacausallinkbetweentwothings.Thatisnottosaythatthingslikefiberandbroccolihavenobeneficialeffectsatall.Butthosewithsedentarylifestylescannotexpectthesefoodstomakethemhealthy. Thereishoweveronethingwhichincreasesthelikelihoodofdyingrelativelyyoungevenwhenalloftheotherfactorshavebeentakenintoaccount.Itisoneofthebiggestkillersevenamongthosewholeadlifestyleswhichbyanycriteriaareclearlyhealthyones.Thissingleincontrovertibleriskfactoristhatofbeingpoor.RecentreportfromtheCancerResearchCampaignsuggestedthat12700deathscouldhavebeenavoidedbetween1986and1990ifinequalitiesincancercaredidnotexistinEnglandandWales.ComparingcancersurvivalratesthestudyfoundthatEnglandandWalesfaredunfavorablywithEuropeandtheUSbutthemostaffluentregionsofthesetwocountriesexhibitedsimilarfigurestotheEuropeanaverage. InanattempttocounterthisdisparitythegovernmenthasannouncedplansfortheprovisionofHealthActionZoneswhichseektoencouragegreatercooperationbetweenhealthandsocialservicestargetingbothruralandinnercityareas.Theemphasisofthisnewschemehoweverappearstofocusoninadequacieswithinhealtheducationintheseareasratherthanattackingthebroaderissuesofsocialinequality. Accordingtothefirstparagraphwhatarewelikelytoreadinmanymediareports
Thevolcanointhecornfieldgrewuntilitwasbiggerthanthecornfield!41______PeoplecalledthevolcanotheLittleMonsterbecauseitgrewsofast.Scientistscamefromallovertheworldtostudyitandwatchitgrow.Itisnotoftenthatpeoplegetachancetowatchavolcanofromtheverybeginning. Mostofthevolcanoeshavebeenhereforaverylongtime.Somehavebeenheresolongthatnowtheyarecold.Theyarecalleddeadvolcanoes.Theyhavestoppedthrowingoutfireandmeltedrockandsmoke.Itissafetowalkonthem.Farmsareplowedonthequietslopesandpeoplehavebuilthousesthere. Somevolcanoeshavestoppedthrowingouthotrockbuttheystillsmokealittlenowandthen.Theyare"sleeping"volcanoes.Sometimetheymay"wakeup". 42______. Todayvolcanoesarenotsodangerousforpeopleastheywerealongtimeago.Nowweknowmoreaboutwhyvolcanoesdowhattheydoandwecanusuallytellwhentheyaregoingtodoit.43______. Peopleusedtothinkdragonsundertheearthcausedvolcanoes.Theysaidthesmokethatpuffedabovethegroundwasthedragon’sbreath.Theysaidtheearthquakeswerecausedbythedragon’smovingarounddownintheearth.Nowweknowthatthisisnottrue. Anotherthingweknowaboutvolcanoesisthattheydon’thappenjustanywhere.44______.Scientistsknowwheretheseplacesareandmapshavebeenmadetoleteverybodyknow. Therearedifferentkindsofvolcanoes.Someexplodesoviolentlythattherockgoeshighintotheairandfallsmilesaway.Avolcanomayshootoutashessohighthattheyfloatallthewayaroundtheworld.Theyhavemadethesunsetsgreenandthesnowpurple. 45______. Oneverytallvolcanostaysfieryredatthetopallthetime.Itisluckythatthevolcanoisneartheocean.Sailorscanuseitforalighthouse. [A]Othervolcanoesaremoregentle.Thehotlavarisesintheirconesandoverflowsrollingslowlydownthemountainsidewhereitbecomescoolandhard. [B]Blacksmokepuffedout.Hotashesfelllikeblacksnowflakes.Hotrockandfireandlavashotout. [C]Smokepuffedupandrockstartedpoppingupoutofacrackthatopenedintheground. [D]AvolcanonamedVesuviussleptforathousandyears.Butitwokeupandthrewoutsomuchhotmeltedrockthatitburiedthebuildingsoftwocities. [E]Beforeasleepingvolcanowakesupitusuallymakesanoiselikefarawaythunderandthegroundshakesinsmallearthquakes.Peoplearewarnedandhavetimetogetawaysafely. [F]Avolcanostartsfromaholeinthegroundfromwhichhotrockandsmokeandsteamcomeout.Farfarunderthegrounditissohotthatrockmelts.Thishotmeltedrockorlavaissome-timespushedoutoftheearththroughaholeoracrackintheground.Thesteaminsidetheearthpushestherockout. [G]Therearecertainplacesundertheearthwheretherockisbrokeninawaythatletsthesteamandhotrockescapetotheoutsidemoreeasily. 43
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 19
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 17
Tobeagoodfriendyouhavetogiveofyourselfnonethelessnotsomuchthatyouloseyourself.Thisisaprettypredictablerecipeforhappiness.Givingtoothers—areliablewayoffosteringfriendships—makesushappierthantakingthingsforourselves.InthelightofresearchledbyDr.ElizabethDunnattheUniversityofBritishColumbiamoneycanpurchasehappiness...ontheprerequisitethatyouutilizeitonotherpeople. Researchersadministeredthreestudiesconsecutively.Firsttheysurveyedmorethan600Americansandfoundthatspendingmoneyongiftsandcharitiesledtogreaterhappinessthanspendingmoneyononeself. Subsequentlytheyprobedintoworkerswhohadjustreceivedbonusesandobservedthattheirhappinessdidnothingeonthesizeoftheirbonusbutonthedecisiontheymadeaboutwhattodowithwhateveramountofmoneytheyreceived.Thosewhospentmoreoftheirbonusonotherswerehappierthanthosewhospentthemoneyonthemselves. Finallytheresearcherssimplydistributedmoneytoagoodmanysubjectsinstructingsometospendthemoneyonthemselvesandotherstospendthemoneyonothers.Attheendofthedaytheoneswhospentmoneyonotherswereagooddealhappier. Asaconsequencehavingfriendsandtreatingthemgenerouslyisclearlyawinningstrategyinlife.Butwhataboutinbusiness IfyouwatchevenasingleepisodeofanyrealityTVshowbasedonacompetitionsuchasTheApprenticeyou’llhearasinglephrasecropupmoreoftenthananyother:"I’mnotheretomakefriends!"IsthattrueArewebetteroffbeingcutthroatthancollaborative Onceyou’reonthejobhavingabestfriendatworkisastrongpredictorofensuingsuccess.Peoplemightdefine"best"looselythinkofthisaskindergartenwhereyoucanhavemorethanone"best"friendbutaccordingtoaGallupOrganizationstudyofmorethan5millionworkersover3556%ofthepeoplewhosaytheyhaveabestfriendatworkareengagedproductiveandsuccessfulwhileonly8%oftheoneswhodon’tare. Anotherremarkablestudyspanningdecadesrevealedthatfriendshipsinhighschoolwereaneffectivepredictorofincreasedwagesinadulthood—tothetuneof2%perpersonwhoconsideredyouaclosefriend.Toputitotherwiseifinhighschoolthreepeopleregardedyouasoneoftheirclosestsame-sexfriendsyourearningsinadulthoodworkwouldbe6%higher. Thehappytruthisthatthecompetitorswhosaythey’renotheretomakefriendsdon’twineventually.That’strueforrealityTVforbusinessandforlifeaswell. Accordingtothepassageitwouldbebetterforhigh-schoolstudentsto
Tobeagoodfriendyouhavetogiveofyourselfnonethelessnotsomuchthatyouloseyourself.Thisisaprettypredictablerecipeforhappiness.Givingtoothers—areliablewayoffosteringfriendships—makesushappierthantakingthingsforourselves.InthelightofresearchledbyDr.ElizabethDunnattheUniversityofBritishColumbiamoneycanpurchasehappiness...ontheprerequisitethatyouutilizeitonotherpeople. Researchersadministeredthreestudiesconsecutively.Firsttheysurveyedmorethan600Americansandfoundthatspendingmoneyongiftsandcharitiesledtogreaterhappinessthanspendingmoneyononeself. Subsequentlytheyprobedintoworkerswhohadjustreceivedbonusesandobservedthattheirhappinessdidnothingeonthesizeoftheirbonusbutonthedecisiontheymadeaboutwhattodowithwhateveramountofmoneytheyreceived.Thosewhospentmoreoftheirbonusonotherswerehappierthanthosewhospentthemoneyonthemselves. Finallytheresearcherssimplydistributedmoneytoagoodmanysubjectsinstructingsometospendthemoneyonthemselvesandotherstospendthemoneyonothers.Attheendofthedaytheoneswhospentmoneyonotherswereagooddealhappier. Asaconsequencehavingfriendsandtreatingthemgenerouslyisclearlyawinningstrategyinlife.Butwhataboutinbusiness IfyouwatchevenasingleepisodeofanyrealityTVshowbasedonacompetitionsuchasTheApprenticeyou’llhearasinglephrasecropupmoreoftenthananyother:"I’mnotheretomakefriends!"IsthattrueArewebetteroffbeingcutthroatthancollaborative Onceyou’reonthejobhavingabestfriendatworkisastrongpredictorofensuingsuccess.Peoplemightdefine"best"looselythinkofthisaskindergartenwhereyoucanhavemorethanone"best"friendbutaccordingtoaGallupOrganizationstudyofmorethan5millionworkersover3556%ofthepeoplewhosaytheyhaveabestfriendatworkareengagedproductiveandsuccessfulwhileonly8%oftheoneswhodon’tare. Anotherremarkablestudyspanningdecadesrevealedthatfriendshipsinhighschoolwereaneffectivepredictorofincreasedwagesinadulthood—tothetuneof2%perpersonwhoconsideredyouaclosefriend.Toputitotherwiseifinhighschoolthreepeopleregardedyouasoneoftheirclosestsame-sexfriendsyourearningsinadulthoodworkwouldbe6%higher. Thehappytruthisthatthecompetitorswhosaythey’renotheretomakefriendsdon’twineventually.That’strueforrealityTVforbusinessandforlifeaswell. AccordingtoDr.ElizabethDunn’sresearch
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 15
Rarelydomajordiseaseshaveasinglecause.Theyareusuallytheresultofacomplexinteractionbetweenmanyfactorsincludinggeneticenvironmentalandlifestylecomponents.Manymediareportshowevercanteadustobelievethatifwegaveupsomethingthatwemightotherwiseenjoywecouldcompletelyescapethatparticularaffliction. Clearlythisisnotthecase.Vegetariansdieofcancerofthecolon结肠.Teetotallersdieoflivercomplaintsincludingcirrhosis硬化.Peoplewhonevergooutinthesuncontractskinmelanomas黑素瘤.Alwaysthereareotherfactorsatworkthanthesingleelementbeingexaminedinascientificstudy. Quiteoftentheallegedbenefitsofaparticularnutritionalelementaretheresultnotsomuchoftheelementitselfbutofthelifestyleandgeneraldietofthepeoplewhoconsumeitmost.Peoplewhoeatlotsof"healthy"foodsincludingfibercarrotsbroccolietc.alsotendtodrinklessalcoholtakemoreexerciseavoidtoomanyfattyfoodsandsmokeless.Onlywhenastudycanruleoutalloftheseotherfactorsandoftenwedonotknowwhatthesefactorsmightbecanwesaythatthereisacausallinkbetweentwothings.Thatisnottosaythatthingslikefiberandbroccolihavenobeneficialeffectsatall.Butthosewithsedentarylifestylescannotexpectthesefoodstomakethemhealthy. Thereishoweveronethingwhichincreasesthelikelihoodofdyingrelativelyyoungevenwhenalloftheotherfactorshavebeentakenintoaccount.Itisoneofthebiggestkillersevenamongthosewholeadlifestyleswhichbyanycriteriaareclearlyhealthyones.Thissingleincontrovertibleriskfactoristhatofbeingpoor.RecentreportfromtheCancerResearchCampaignsuggestedthat12700deathscouldhavebeenavoidedbetween1986and1990ifinequalitiesincancercaredidnotexistinEnglandandWales.ComparingcancersurvivalratesthestudyfoundthatEnglandandWalesfaredunfavorablywithEuropeandtheUSbutthemostaffluentregionsofthesetwocountriesexhibitedsimilarfigurestotheEuropeanaverage. InanattempttocounterthisdisparitythegovernmenthasannouncedplansfortheprovisionofHealthActionZoneswhichseektoencouragegreatercooperationbetweenhealthandsocialservicestargetingbothruralandinnercityareas.Theemphasisofthisnewschemehoweverappearstofocusoninadequacieswithinhealtheducationintheseareasratherthanattackingthebroaderissuesofsocialinequality. Accordingtotheauthorfiberandbroccoliaretheso-calledhealthyfoodsbecause
Tobeagoodfriendyouhavetogiveofyourselfnonethelessnotsomuchthatyouloseyourself.Thisisaprettypredictablerecipeforhappiness.Givingtoothers—areliablewayoffosteringfriendships—makesushappierthantakingthingsforourselves.InthelightofresearchledbyDr.ElizabethDunnattheUniversityofBritishColumbiamoneycanpurchasehappiness...ontheprerequisitethatyouutilizeitonotherpeople. Researchersadministeredthreestudiesconsecutively.Firsttheysurveyedmorethan600Americansandfoundthatspendingmoneyongiftsandcharitiesledtogreaterhappinessthanspendingmoneyononeself. Subsequentlytheyprobedintoworkerswhohadjustreceivedbonusesandobservedthattheirhappinessdidnothingeonthesizeoftheirbonusbutonthedecisiontheymadeaboutwhattodowithwhateveramountofmoneytheyreceived.Thosewhospentmoreoftheirbonusonotherswerehappierthanthosewhospentthemoneyonthemselves. Finallytheresearcherssimplydistributedmoneytoagoodmanysubjectsinstructingsometospendthemoneyonthemselvesandotherstospendthemoneyonothers.Attheendofthedaytheoneswhospentmoneyonotherswereagooddealhappier. Asaconsequencehavingfriendsandtreatingthemgenerouslyisclearlyawinningstrategyinlife.Butwhataboutinbusiness IfyouwatchevenasingleepisodeofanyrealityTVshowbasedonacompetitionsuchasTheApprenticeyou’llhearasinglephrasecropupmoreoftenthananyother:"I’mnotheretomakefriends!"IsthattrueArewebetteroffbeingcutthroatthancollaborative Onceyou’reonthejobhavingabestfriendatworkisastrongpredictorofensuingsuccess.Peoplemightdefine"best"looselythinkofthisaskindergartenwhereyoucanhavemorethanone"best"friendbutaccordingtoaGallupOrganizationstudyofmorethan5millionworkersover3556%ofthepeoplewhosaytheyhaveabestfriendatworkareengagedproductiveandsuccessfulwhileonly8%oftheoneswhodon’tare. Anotherremarkablestudyspanningdecadesrevealedthatfriendshipsinhighschoolwereaneffectivepredictorofincreasedwagesinadulthood—tothetuneof2%perpersonwhoconsideredyouaclosefriend.Toputitotherwiseifinhighschoolthreepeopleregardedyouasoneoftheirclosestsame-sexfriendsyourearningsinadulthoodworkwouldbe6%higher. Thehappytruthisthatthecompetitorswhosaythey’renotheretomakefriendsdon’twineventually.That’strueforrealityTVforbusinessandforlifeaswell. TheauthorquotestheexampleoftheTVshowtoshowthat
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 5
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 3
46Withinthemodernstudyofreligionthedivisionbetweenphilosophyofreli-gionandthehistolwofreligions-longregardedasatruisminsofarasitreflectsthedistinctionbetweenuniversalandparticular-hasbecomeincreasinglyblurredinrecentyearswiththegrowinginfluenceof’culturalandcriticaltheoryonthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Unliketheearaierparadigmaticsplitbetweentheologyandanthropologyorsocialsciencemethodologyculturaltheoryhashelpednotonlytodismantlewellworndualismssuchasreligion/politicstheism/atheismsacred/secularbutmoreimportantlyhashelpedtonarrowthegapbetweenacademicpracticesandculturalpracticessuchasreligionthatscholarsseektostudy.47Thatistosayculturaltheoryhassimultaneouslyproblematizedandchallengedessentialistandtheologicaltendenciessuchasdreamsofabsoluteprinciplessupernaturaloriginsahistoricalauthoritiespuretraditionsetc.aswellasscholars’claimstomethodologicalobjectivityandimpartialitysincetheacademyfarfrombeingasiteofneutralvalue-freeanalysisisitselfthoroughlyimplicatedinculturalrealities.Indeedinwhatmightseenasareversalofcriticaltheory’satheisticrootsinthe"mastersofsuspicion"contemporaryculturaltheoryhasbeenadaptedbyscholarsnotonlytosuccessfullydisputetheatheisticpresuppositionsofmodernsecularthinkinginthesocialsciencestherebyrevitalizingreligiousandtheologicalreflectionintheChristianandJudaictraditionsbutmoresurprisinglyperhapsithaslegitimizedtheuseofphenomenafromtheseparticulartraditionsasresourcesforcriticalthinkingaboutreligionperse. 48BycontrasthowevertheeffectsofcriticaltheoryonthestudyofnonWesternreligionshasnotonlybeenfarmoremodestinmanycasesitseemsalsotohavehadpreciselytheoppositeeffect.InthestudyofSouthAsianreligionsforexampletheeffectofcriticaltheoryseemstohavereinforcedthepriorityofthesecular.Inhisrecentwork"ProvincialisingEurope"DipeshChakrabartypointsouttheverydifferentinterventionsofcriticaltheoryinthetwotraditions.49WhereasintheWesternintellectualtraditionsfundamentalthinkerswhoarelongdeadandgonearetreatednotonlyaspeoplebelongingtotheirowntimesbutalsoasthoughtheywereourcontemporariesthethinkersandtraditionsofSouthAsiaonceunbrokenandaliveintheirnativelanguagesarenowmattersofhistoricalresearch.Thesetraditionsaretreatedastrulydeadashistory.Fewifanysocialscientistsworkinginthehistoryofreligionswouldevertrytomaketheconceptsofthesetraditionsintoresourcesforcontemporarycriticaltheory.50Andyet"pastWesternthinkersandtheircategoriesareneverquitedeadforusinthesameway.SouthAsianistsocialscientistswouldarguepassionatelywithaMarxoraWeberwithoutfeelinganyneedtohistoricizethemortoplacethemintheirEuropeanintellectualcontexts". 47Thatistosayculturaltheoryhassimultaneouslyproblematizedandchallengedessentialistandtheologicaltendenciessuchasdreamsofabsoluteprinciplessupernaturaloriginsahistoricalauthoritiespuretraditionsetc.aswellasscholars’claimstomethodologicalobjectivityandimpartialitysincetheacademyfarfrombeingasiteofneutralvalue-freeanalysisisitselfthoroughlyimplicatedinculturalrealities.
Optimismistheartofalwaysseeingtheglasshalffull1halfemptyfindingsomethingpositiveineventhemost2ofsituationsandlastbutnotleasttheabilitytoexpectthebestevenifthechancesare3.Itenablesyoutotrynewthingsdealwithfailureasalearningexperience4astoppingpoint.Ingeneraloptimismgivesyouareasontolive.Theworldwouldbeabetterplaceifitwasfullofoptimism5unfortunatelythetrendintoday’syouthis6theoppositeway.Todayitis7tobepessimistic.Onecouldspendhoursdiscussinghowwearrivedatthispoint8ouryouthrefusestosmelltherosesandinsteadprefersto9themselvesontheirownpessimistic10. Optimismisnotan11giftbutratheralearnedbehavior12.Likemostbehaviorsoptimismisbestlearnedbywatchingexamples13you.Thefirststepincreatingagenerationofpeoplewithapositiveoutlookonlifeisto14lifeonthebrightsideyourself.15itwouldbewrongto16yourchildfromallnegativityitisimportantthatyouarenotthe17ofdoubtsandworries.Findingsomethingpositiveinanegativesituationneedstobe18Showhowtomakethebestofthingsbyalways19thepositivebyencouragingyourchildafteran20andbyexplainingoverandoverthatfailureisjustapartofprogress. 7
46Withinthemodernstudyofreligionthedivisionbetweenphilosophyofreli-gionandthehistolwofreligions-longregardedasatruisminsofarasitreflectsthedistinctionbetweenuniversalandparticular-hasbecomeincreasinglyblurredinrecentyearswiththegrowinginfluenceof’culturalandcriticaltheoryonthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Unliketheearaierparadigmaticsplitbetweentheologyandanthropologyorsocialsciencemethodologyculturaltheoryhashelpednotonlytodismantlewellworndualismssuchasreligion/politicstheism/atheismsacred/secularbutmoreimportantlyhashelpedtonarrowthegapbetweenacademicpracticesandculturalpracticessuchasreligionthatscholarsseektostudy.47Thatistosayculturaltheoryhassimultaneouslyproblematizedandchallengedessentialistandtheologicaltendenciessuchasdreamsofabsoluteprinciplessupernaturaloriginsahistoricalauthoritiespuretraditionsetc.aswellasscholars’claimstomethodologicalobjectivityandimpartialitysincetheacademyfarfrombeingasiteofneutralvalue-freeanalysisisitselfthoroughlyimplicatedinculturalrealities.Indeedinwhatmightseenasareversalofcriticaltheory’satheisticrootsinthe"mastersofsuspicion"contemporaryculturaltheoryhasbeenadaptedbyscholarsnotonlytosuccessfullydisputetheatheisticpresuppositionsofmodernsecularthinkinginthesocialsciencestherebyrevitalizingreligiousandtheologicalreflectionintheChristianandJudaictraditionsbutmoresurprisinglyperhapsithaslegitimizedtheuseofphenomenafromtheseparticulartraditionsasresourcesforcriticalthinkingaboutreligionperse. 48BycontrasthowevertheeffectsofcriticaltheoryonthestudyofnonWesternreligionshasnotonlybeenfarmoremodestinmanycasesitseemsalsotohavehadpreciselytheoppositeeffect.InthestudyofSouthAsianreligionsforexampletheeffectofcriticaltheoryseemstohavereinforcedthepriorityofthesecular.Inhisrecentwork"ProvincialisingEurope"DipeshChakrabartypointsouttheverydifferentinterventionsofcriticaltheoryinthetwotraditions.49WhereasintheWesternintellectualtraditionsfundamentalthinkerswhoarelongdeadandgonearetreatednotonlyaspeoplebelongingtotheirowntimesbutalsoasthoughtheywereourcontemporariesthethinkersandtraditionsofSouthAsiaonceunbrokenandaliveintheirnativelanguagesarenowmattersofhistoricalresearch.Thesetraditionsaretreatedastrulydeadashistory.Fewifanysocialscientistsworkinginthehistoryofreligionswouldevertrytomaketheconceptsofthesetraditionsintoresourcesforcontemporarycriticaltheory.50Andyet"pastWesternthinkersandtheircategoriesareneverquitedeadforusinthesameway.SouthAsianistsocialscientistswouldarguepassionatelywithaMarxoraWeberwithoutfeelinganyneedtohistoricizethemortoplacethemintheirEuropeanintellectualcontexts". 49WhereasintheWesternintellectualtraditionsfundamentalthinkerswhoarelongdeadandgonearetreatednotonlyaspeoplebelongingtotheirowntimesbutalsoasthoughtheywereourcontemporariesthethinkersandtraditionsofSouthAsiaonceunbrokenandaliveintheirnativelanguagesarenowmattersofhistoricalresearch.
Withthespreadofinter-activeelectronicmediaamanaloneinhisownhomewillneverhavebeensowellplacedtofilltheinexplicablementalspacebetweencradleandcrematorium.SoIsuspectthatbookswillbepushedmoreandmoreintothosemomentsoftravelordifficultdefecation1peoplestilldon’tquiteknowwhattodowith. WhenpeopledoreadIthinkthey’llwanttofeeltheyarereadingliteratureor2somethingserious.3you’regoingtofindfewerbookspresentingthemselvesasno-nonsenseand4assumingliterarypretensionsandbeingpackagedasworksofart.Wecanexpectanextraordinaryvarietyofgenrebutwithanunderlying5ofsentimentandvision. Translatorscanonly6fromthisdesireforthepresumablysophisticated.Wecanlookforwardtolotsofdifficultnamesandfantasticstoriesofforeignpartsenthusiastically7bytheoverallworshipofthe"globalvillage"Muchofthiswillbeawfulandsomewonderful8don’texpectthepressortheorganizersofprizestoofferyoumuchhelpinmakingtheappropriatedistinctions.Theywillbechiefly9increatingcelebritythegreatestenemyofdiscriminationbutagoodpropforthe10consumer. Everyethnicgroupingovertheworldwillhavetobeseentohaveagreatwriter--aphenomenonthatwill11anewkindofprovincialismmorechronologicalthangeographic12onlythestrictlycontemporaryistalkedaboutand13.UniversitiesincludingCambridgewillinclude14theirliteraturesyllabusnovelswrittenonlylastyear.15occasionalexhumationfortheNobeltheachievementsoftenoronlyfiveyearsagowillbelargelyforgotten. Inshortyoucan’tgotoofarwrongwhenpredictingmoreofthesame.Butthereisa16sidetothis--theinevitablereactionagainstit.ThepracticalthingsIwouldliketoseehappen--publishersseekinglessto17celebritythroughextravagantadvertising18andmagazines19spacetoreflectivepieces--arerathermoreimprobablethantheSecondComing耶稣复临.Butdullnessneverquitedarkensthewholeplanet.Intheirownidiosyncraticfashionafewwriterswill20belookingfornewdepartures. 11
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