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AradiativeforcingisanychangeimposedontheEarththataffecttheplanetaryenergybalance.Radiativeforcingsincludechangesingreenhousegasessuchascarbondioxideandozoneaerosolsintheatmospheresolarirradianceandsurfacereflectivity.Aforcingmayresultfromeitheranaturalorananthropogeniccauseorfrombothasinthecaseofatmosphericaerosolconcentrationswhichcanbealteredeitherbyvolcanicactionortheburningoffossilfuels.Radiativeforcingsaretypicallyspecifiedforthepurposeoftheoreticalglobalclimatesimulations.Incontrastradiativefeedbacksareenvironmentalchangesresultingfromclimatechangesandarecalculatedfromscientificobservation.Radiativefeedbacksincludechangesinsuchphenomenaascloudsatmosphericwatervaporsea-icecoverandsnowcover. Theinterplaybetweenforcingsandfeedbackscanbequitecomplex.Forexampleanincreaseintheconcentrationofatmosphericwatervaporincreasessolarirradiancetherebywarmingtheatmosphereandinturnincreasingevaporationandtheconcentrationofatmosphericwatervapor.Arelatedexampleofthiscomplexinterplayalsoshowstheuncertaintyoffutureclimaticchangesassociatedwithforcingsandfeedbacks.ScientistsareunsurehowthereductionofozonewillultimatelyaffectcloudsandinturntheEarthtemperature.Cloudstrapoutgoingcoolingradiationtherebyprovidingawarminginfluence.Howevertheyalsoreflectincomingsolarradiationandthusprovideacoolinginfluence.CurrentsmeasurementsindicatethattheneteffectofcloudsistocooltheEarth.Howeverscientistsdonotknowhowthebalancemightshiftinthefutureascloudformationanddispersionareaffectedbyozonereduction. Contributingtothisuncertaintyisthecomplexityofthemechanismsatworkintheprocessofozonereduction.Theamountofradiationreachingtheearth’’ssurfaceandtheamountofreradiatedradiationthatistrappedbythegreenhouseeffectinfluencetheEarth’’stemperatureinoppositedirections.Bothmechanismsareaffectedbytheverticaldistributionofozone.Alsotherelativeimportanceofthesetwocompetingmechanismsdependsonthealtitudeatwhichozonechangesoccur.InarecentNASA-sponsoredaircraftstudyoftheAntarcticozoneholechlorinemonoxidewasmeasuredatvaryingaltitudes.Themeasurementssuggestthatchlorineplaysagreaterroleandoxidesofnitrogenalesserrolethanpreviouslythoughtinthedestructionofozoneintheloweratmosphere.Thestudyconcludedthatsimultaneoushigh-resolutionmeasurementsatmanydifferentaltitudesonthescaleof0.1kilometerinverticalextentarenecessarytodiagnosetheoperativemechanisms.Thesefindingshavecalledintoquestionconventionalexplanationsforozonereductionwhichfailtoadequatelyaccountforthenewevidence.NASA=NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration国家航空航天局 TheNASA-sponsoredstudyoftheozonehole
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlives1aboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories2istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto3anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:4anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide5tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheirpastasaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living.7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutit—andcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.4
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlives1aboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories2istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto3anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:4anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide5tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheirpastasaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living.7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutit—andcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.10
ItissaidthatinEnglanddeathispressinginCanadainevitableandinCaliforniaoptional.Smallwonder.Americans’’lifeexpectancyhasnearlydoubledoverthepastcentury.Failinghipscanbereplacedclinicaldepressioncontrolledcataractsremovedina30-minutesurgicalprocedure.SuchadvancesoffertheagingpopulationaqualityoflifethatwasunimaginablewhenIenteredmedicine50yearsago.Butnotevenagreathealth-caresystemcancuredeath--andourfailuretoconfrontthatrealitynowthreatensthisgreatnessofours. Deathisnormal;wearegeneticallyprogrammedtodisintegrateandperishevenunderidealconditions.Weallunderstandthatatsomelevelyetasmedicalconsumerswetreatdeathasaproblemtobesolved.Shieldedbythird-partypayersfromthecostofourcarewedemandeyed’’thingthatcanpossiblybedoneforusevenifit’’suseless.Themostobviousexampleislate-stagecancercare.Physicians--frustratedbytheirinabilitytocurethediseaseandfearinglossofhopeinthepatient--toooftenofferaggressivetreatmentfarbeyondwhatisscientificallyjustified. In1950theU.S.spent$12.7billiononhealthcare.In2002thecostwillbe$I540billion.Anyonecanseethistrendisunsustainable.Yetfewseemwillingtotrytoreverseit.Somescholarsconcludethatagovernmentwithfiniteresourcesshouldsimplystoppayingformedicalcarethatsustainslifebeyondacertainage--say83orso.FormerColoradogovernorRichardLammhasbeenquotedassayingthattheoldandinfirmhaveadutytodieandgetoutofthewaysothatyoungerhealthierpeoplecanrealizetheirpotential. Iwouldnotgothatfar.Energeticpeoplenowroutinelyworkthroughtheir60sandbeyondandremaindazzlinglyproductive.At78ViacomchairmanSumnerRedstonejokinglyclaimstobe53.SupremeCourtJusticeSandraDayO’’Connorisinher7OsandformersurgeongeneralC.EverettKoopchairsanInternetstart-upinhis80s.Theseleadersarelivingproofthatpreventionworksandthatwecanmanagethehealthproblemsthatcomenaturallywithage.Asamere68-year-oldIwishtoageasproductivelyastheyhave. Yettherearelimitstowhatasocietycanspendinthispursuit.AsaphysicianIknowthemostcostlyamddramaticmeasuresmaybeineffectiveandpainful.IalsoknowthatpeopleinJapanandSwedencountriesthatspendfarlessonmedicalcarehaveachievedlongerhealthierlivesthanwehave.Asanationwemaybeoverfundingthequestforunlikelycureswhileunderfundingresearchonhumblertherapiesthatcouldimprovepeople’’slives. IncontrasttotheU.S.JapanandSwedenarefundingtheirmedicalcare
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
Humanbeingsinalltimesandplacesthinkabouttheirworldandwonderattheirplaceinit.Humansarethoughtfulandcreativepossessedofinsatiablecuriosity.61Furthermorehumanshavetheabilitytomodifytheenvironmentinwhichtheylivethussubjectingallotherlifeformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.ThereforeitisimportanttostudyhumansinalltheirrichnessanddiversityinacalmandsystematicmannerwiththehopethattheknowledgeresultingfromsuchstudiescanleadhumanstoamorehannoniouswayoflivingwiththemselvesandwithallotherlifeformsonthisplanetEarth. Anthropology.derivesfromtheGreekwordsanthroposhumanandlogosthestudyof.Bvitsverynameanthropologyencompassesthestudyofallhumankind. Anthropologyisoneofthesocialsciences.62Socialscienceisthatbranchofintellectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasonedorderlysystematicanddispassionedmannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena. Socialsciencedisciplinesincludegeographyeconomicspoliticalsciencepsychologyandsociology.Eachofthesesocialscienceshasasubfieldorspecializationwhichliesparticularlyclosetoanthropology. Allthesocialsciencesfocusuponthestudyofhumanity.Anthropologyisafield-studyorienteddisciplinewhichmakesextensiveuseofthecomparativemethodinanalysis.63Theemphasisondatagatheredfirst-handcombinedwithacross-culturalperspectivebroughttotheanalysisofculturespastandpresentmakesthisstudyauniqueanddistinctlyimportantsocialscience. Anthropologicalanalysesrestheavilyupontheconceptofculture.SirEdwardTylor’’sformulationoftheconceptofculturewasoneofthegreatintellectualachievementsof19thcenturyscience.64Tylordefinedcultureas...thatcomplexwholewhichincludesbeliefartmoralslawcustomandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.Thisinsightsoprofoundinitssimplicityopenedupanentirelynewwayofperceivingandunderstandinghumanlife.ImplicitwithinTylor’’sdefinitionistheconceptthatcultureislearnedsharedandpatternedbehavior. 65Thustheanthropologicalconceptofcultureliketheconceptofsetinmathematicsisanabstractconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding.
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlives1aboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories2istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto3anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:4anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide5tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheirpastasaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living.7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutit—andcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.6
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
AradiativeforcingisanychangeimposedontheEarththataffecttheplanetaryenergybalance.Radiativeforcingsincludechangesingreenhousegasessuchascarbondioxideandozoneaerosolsintheatmospheresolarirradianceandsurfacereflectivity.Aforcingmayresultfromeitheranaturalorananthropogeniccauseorfrombothasinthecaseofatmosphericaerosolconcentrationswhichcanbealteredeitherbyvolcanicactionortheburningoffossilfuels.Radiativeforcingsaretypicallyspecifiedforthepurposeoftheoreticalglobalclimatesimulations.Incontrastradiativefeedbacksareenvironmentalchangesresultingfromclimatechangesandarecalculatedfromscientificobservation.Radiativefeedbacksincludechangesinsuchphenomenaascloudsatmosphericwatervaporsea-icecoverandsnowcover. Theinterplaybetweenforcingsandfeedbackscanbequitecomplex.Forexampleanincreaseintheconcentrationofatmosphericwatervaporincreasessolarirradiancetherebywarmingtheatmosphereandinturnincreasingevaporationandtheconcentrationofatmosphericwatervapor.Arelatedexampleofthiscomplexinterplayalsoshowstheuncertaintyoffutureclimaticchangesassociatedwithforcingsandfeedbacks.ScientistsareunsurehowthereductionofozonewillultimatelyaffectcloudsandinturntheEarthtemperature.Cloudstrapoutgoingcoolingradiationtherebyprovidingawarminginfluence.Howevertheyalsoreflectincomingsolarradiationandthusprovideacoolinginfluence.CurrentsmeasurementsindicatethattheneteffectofcloudsistocooltheEarth.Howeverscientistsdonotknowhowthebalancemightshiftinthefutureascloudformationanddispersionareaffectedbyozonereduction. Contributingtothisuncertaintyisthecomplexityofthemechanismsatworkintheprocessofozonereduction.Theamountofradiationreachingtheearth’’ssurfaceandtheamountofreradiatedradiationthatistrappedbythegreenhouseeffectinfluencetheEarth’’stemperatureinoppositedirections.Bothmechanismsareaffectedbytheverticaldistributionofozone.Alsotherelativeimportanceofthesetwocompetingmechanismsdependsonthealtitudeatwhichozonechangesoccur.InarecentNASA-sponsoredaircraftstudyoftheAntarcticozoneholechlorinemonoxidewasmeasuredatvaryingaltitudes.Themeasurementssuggestthatchlorineplaysagreaterroleandoxidesofnitrogenalesserrolethanpreviouslythoughtinthedestructionofozoneintheloweratmosphere.Thestudyconcludedthatsimultaneoushigh-resolutionmeasurementsatmanydifferentaltitudesonthescaleof0.1kilometerinverticalextentarenecessarytodiagnosetheoperativemechanisms.Thesefindingshavecalledintoquestionconventionalexplanationsforozonereductionwhichfailtoadequatelyaccountforthenewevidence.NASA=NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration国家航空航天局 Scientistscouldmoreaccuratelypredicttheextentanddirectionofgreenhouseeffectiftheywereto
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlives1aboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories2istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto3anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:4anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide5tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheirpastasaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living.7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutit—andcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.2
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
Itisoftenobservedthattheagedspendmuchtimethinkingandtalkingabouttheirpastlives1aboutthefuture.Thesereminiscencesarenotsimplyrandomortrivialmemories2istheirpurposemerelytomakeconversation.Theoldperson’srecollectionsofthepasthelpto3anidentitythatisbecomingincreasinglyfragile:4anyrolethatbringsrespectoranygoalthatmightprovide5tothefuturetheindividualmentionstheirpastasaremindertolistenersthatherewasalife6living.7thememoriesformpartofacontinuinglife8inwhichtheoldperson9theeventsandexperiencesoftheyearsgonebyand10ontheoverallmeaningofhisorherownalmostcompletedlife. Asthelifecycle11toitsclosetheagedmustalsolearntoaccepttherealityoftheirownimpendingdeath.12thistaskismadedifficultbythefactthatdeathisalmosta13subjectintheUnitedStates.Themerediscussionofdeathisoftenregardedas14Asadultsmanyofusfindthetopicfrighteningandare15tothinkaboutit—andcertainlynottotalkaboutit16thepresenceofsomeonewhoisdying.Deathhasachievedthistaboo17onlyinthemodernindustrialsocieties.Thereseemstobeanimportantreasonforourreluctanceto18theideaofdeath.Itistheveryfactthatdeathremains19ourcontrol;itisalmosttheonlyoneofthenaturalprocesses20isso. Readthefollowingtext.ChoosethebestwordsforeachnumberedblankandmarkABCorDonANSWERSHEET1.8
Humanbeingsinalltimesandplacesthinkabouttheirworldandwonderattheirplaceinit.Humansarethoughtfulandcreativepossessedofinsatiablecuriosity.61Furthermorehumanshavetheabilitytomodifytheenvironmentinwhichtheylivethussubjectingallotherlifeformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.ThereforeitisimportanttostudyhumansinalltheirrichnessanddiversityinacalmandsystematicmannerwiththehopethattheknowledgeresultingfromsuchstudiescanleadhumanstoamorehannoniouswayoflivingwiththemselvesandwithallotherlifeformsonthisplanetEarth. Anthropology.derivesfromtheGreekwordsanthroposhumanandlogosthestudyof.Bvitsverynameanthropologyencompassesthestudyofallhumankind. Anthropologyisoneofthesocialsciences.62Socialscienceisthatbranchofintellectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasonedorderlysystematicanddispassionedmannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena. Socialsciencedisciplinesincludegeographyeconomicspoliticalsciencepsychologyandsociology.Eachofthesesocialscienceshasasubfieldorspecializationwhichliesparticularlyclosetoanthropology. Allthesocialsciencesfocusuponthestudyofhumanity.Anthropologyisafield-studyorienteddisciplinewhichmakesextensiveuseofthecomparativemethodinanalysis.63Theemphasisondatagatheredfirst-handcombinedwithacross-culturalperspectivebroughttotheanalysisofculturespastandpresentmakesthisstudyauniqueanddistinctlyimportantsocialscience. Anthropologicalanalysesrestheavilyupontheconceptofculture.SirEdwardTylor’’sformulationoftheconceptofculturewasoneofthegreatintellectualachievementsof19thcenturyscience.64Tylordefinedcultureas...thatcomplexwholewhichincludesbeliefartmoralslawcustomandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.Thisinsightsoprofoundinitssimplicityopenedupanentirelynewwayofperceivingandunderstandinghumanlife.ImplicitwithinTylor’’sdefinitionistheconceptthatcultureislearnedsharedandpatternedbehavior. 65Thustheanthropologicalconceptofcultureliketheconceptofsetinmathematicsisanabstractconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding.
TowhatextentaretheunemployedfailingintheirdutytosocietytoworkandhowfarhastheStateanobligationtoensurethattheyhaveworktodo Itisbynowincreasinglyrecognizedthatworkersmaybethrownoutofworkbyindustrialforcesbeyondtheircontrolandthattheunemployedareinsomesensepayingthepriceoftheeconomicprogressoftherestofthecommunity.Butconcernwithunemploymentandtheunemployedvariessharply.Theissuesofdutyandresponsibilitywerereopenedandrevitalizedbytheunemploymentscareof1971-2.RisingunemploymentandincreasedsumspaidoutinbenefitstotheworklesshadreawakenedcontroversieswhichhadbeeninactiveduringmostoftheperiodoffulleremploymentsincethewarendedtheDepression.Itlookedasthoughinfuturetherewouldagainbetoolittleworktogoroundsotherewereargumentsabouthowtoproducemoreworkhowtheavailableworkshouldbesharedoutandwhowasresponsibleforunemploymentandtheunemployed. In1972therewerecriticswhosaidthattheState’’sactioninallowingunemploymenttorisewasafaithlessactabreakingofthesocialcontractbetweensocietyandtheworker.Yetinthemainanycontributionbyemployerstounemployment―suchaslayingoffworkersinordertointroducetechnologicalchangesandmaximizeprofits―tendedtobeignored.Anditwastheunemployedwhowereaccusedoffailingtohonourthesocialcontractbynotfulfillingtheirdutytosocietytowork.Inspiteofgeneralconcernatthescaleoftheunemploymentstatisticswhentheunemployedwereconsideredasindividualstheytendedtoattractscornandthreatsofpunishment.Theircapacitiesandmotivationasworkersandtheirvalueasmembersofsocietybecamesuspect.OfallthemythsoftheWelfareStatestoriesofthework-shyandborrowershavebeentheleastwell-foundedonevidenceyettheyhaveprovedthemostpersistent.TheunemployedwereaccusedofbeingresponsiblefortheirownworklessconditionanddoubtswereexpressedabouttheState’’sobligationeithertoprovidethemwiththesecurityofworkortosupportthemthroughSocialSecurity. Underlyingtheargumentsaboutunemploymentandtheunemployedisabasicdisagreementaboutthenatureandmeaningofworkinsociety.TowhatextentcanorshouldworkberegardedasaservicenotonlyperformedbytheworkerforsocietybutalsomadesecurefortheworkerbytheStateandsupportedifnecessaryAndapartfromcasharetheresocialpressuresandsatisfactionswhichcauseindividualstoseekandkeepwork.sothattheworklessneedworkratherthanjustcash Accordingtotheauthorinthe1971-2crisis
TowhatextentaretheunemployedfailingintheirdutytosocietytoworkandhowfarhastheStateanobligationtoensurethattheyhaveworktodo Itisbynowincreasinglyrecognizedthatworkersmaybethrownoutofworkbyindustrialforcesbeyondtheircontrolandthattheunemployedareinsomesensepayingthepriceoftheeconomicprogressoftherestofthecommunity.Butconcernwithunemploymentandtheunemployedvariessharply.Theissuesofdutyandresponsibilitywerereopenedandrevitalizedbytheunemploymentscareof1971-2.RisingunemploymentandincreasedsumspaidoutinbenefitstotheworklesshadreawakenedcontroversieswhichhadbeeninactiveduringmostoftheperiodoffulleremploymentsincethewarendedtheDepression.Itlookedasthoughinfuturetherewouldagainbetoolittleworktogoroundsotherewereargumentsabouthowtoproducemoreworkhowtheavailableworkshouldbesharedoutandwhowasresponsibleforunemploymentandtheunemployed. In1972therewerecriticswhosaidthattheState’’sactioninallowingunemploymenttorisewasafaithlessactabreakingofthesocialcontractbetweensocietyandtheworker.Yetinthemainanycontributionbyemployerstounemployment―suchaslayingoffworkersinordertointroducetechnologicalchangesandmaximizeprofits―tendedtobeignored.Anditwastheunemployedwhowereaccusedoffailingtohonourthesocialcontractbynotfulfillingtheirdutytosocietytowork.Inspiteofgeneralconcernatthescaleoftheunemploymentstatisticswhentheunemployedwereconsideredasindividualstheytendedtoattractscornandthreatsofpunishment.Theircapacitiesandmotivationasworkersandtheirvalueasmembersofsocietybecamesuspect.OfallthemythsoftheWelfareStatestoriesofthework-shyandborrowershavebeentheleastwell-foundedonevidenceyettheyhaveprovedthemostpersistent.TheunemployedwereaccusedofbeingresponsiblefortheirownworklessconditionanddoubtswereexpressedabouttheState’’sobligationeithertoprovidethemwiththesecurityofworkortosupportthemthroughSocialSecurity. Underlyingtheargumentsaboutunemploymentandtheunemployedisabasicdisagreementaboutthenatureandmeaningofworkinsociety.TowhatextentcanorshouldworkberegardedasaservicenotonlyperformedbytheworkerforsocietybutalsomadesecurefortheworkerbytheStateandsupportedifnecessaryAndapartfromcasharetheresocialpressuresandsatisfactionswhichcauseindividualstoseekandkeepwork.sothattheworklessneedworkratherthanjustcash Itistheauthor’’sbeliefthat
AimlessnesshashardlybeentypicalofthepostwarJapanwhoseproductivityandsocialharmonyaretheenvyoftheUnitedStatesandEurope.ButincreasinglytheJapaneseareseeingadeclineofthetraditionalwork-moralvalues.TenyearsagoyoungpeoplewerehardworkingandsawtheirjobsastheirprimaryreasonforbeingbutnowJapanhaslargelyfulfilleditseconomicneedsandyoungpeopledon’’tknowwheretheyshouldgonext. Thecomingofageofthepostwarbabyboomandanentryofwomenintothemale-dominatedjobmarkethavelimitedtheopportunitiesofteen-agerswhoarealreadyquestioningtheheavypersonalsacrificesinvolvedinclimbingJapan’’srigidsocialladdertogoodschoolsandjobs.Inarecentsurveyitwasfoundthatonly24.5percentofJapanesestudentswerefullysatisfiedwithschoollifecomparedwith67.2percentofstudentsintheUnitedStates.InadditionfarmoreJapaneseworkersexpresseddissatisfactionwiththeirjobsthandidtheircounterpartsinthe10othercountriessurveyed. WhileoftenpraisedbyforeignersforitsemphasisonthebasicsJapaneseeducationtendstostresstesttakingandmechanicallearningovercreativityandself-expression.Thosethingsthatdonotshowupinthetestscores--personalityabilitycourageorhumanity--arecompletelyignoredsaysToshikiKaifuchairmanoftherulingLiberalDemocraticParty’’seducationcommittee.Frustrationagainstthiskindofthingleadskidstodropoutandrunwild.LastyearJapanexperienced2125incidentsofschoolviolenceincluding929assaultsonteachers.Amidtheoutcrymanyconservativeleadersareseekingareturntotheprewaremphasisonmoraleducation.LastyearMitsuoSetoyamawhowastheneducationministerraisedeyebrowswhenhearguedthatliberalreformsintroducedbytheAmericanoccupationauthoritiesafterWorldWarⅡhadweakenedtheJapanesemoralityofrespectforparents. ButthatmayhavemoretodowithJapaneselife-styles.InJapansayseducatorYokoMuroit’’sneveraquestionofwhetheryouenjoyyourjobandyourlifebutonlyhowmuchyoucanendure.Witheconomicgrowthhascomecentralizationfully76percentofJapan’’s119millioncitizensliveincitieswherecommunityandtheextendedfamilyhavebeenabandonedinfavorofisolatedtwo-generationhouseholds.UrbanJapanesehavelongenduredlengthycommutestravelstoandfromworkandcrowdedlivingconditionsbutastheoldgroupandfamilyvaluesweakenthediscomfortisbeginningtotell.InthepastdecadetheJapanesedivorceratewhilestillwellbelowthatoftheUnitedStateshasincreasedbymorethan50percentandsuicideshaveincreasedbynearlyone-quarter. AccordingtotheauthorwhatmaychieflyberesponsibleforthemoraldeclineofJapanesesociety
TowhatextentaretheunemployedfailingintheirdutytosocietytoworkandhowfarhastheStateanobligationtoensurethattheyhaveworktodo Itisbynowincreasinglyrecognizedthatworkersmaybethrownoutofworkbyindustrialforcesbeyondtheircontrolandthattheunemployedareinsomesensepayingthepriceoftheeconomicprogressoftherestofthecommunity.Butconcernwithunemploymentandtheunemployedvariessharply.Theissuesofdutyandresponsibilitywerereopenedandrevitalizedbytheunemploymentscareof1971-2.RisingunemploymentandincreasedsumspaidoutinbenefitstotheworklesshadreawakenedcontroversieswhichhadbeeninactiveduringmostoftheperiodoffulleremploymentsincethewarendedtheDepression.Itlookedasthoughinfuturetherewouldagainbetoolittleworktogoroundsotherewereargumentsabouthowtoproducemoreworkhowtheavailableworkshouldbesharedoutandwhowasresponsibleforunemploymentandtheunemployed. In1972therewerecriticswhosaidthattheState’’sactioninallowingunemploymenttorisewasafaithlessactabreakingofthesocialcontractbetweensocietyandtheworker.Yetinthemainanycontributionbyemployerstounemployment―suchaslayingoffworkersinordertointroducetechnologicalchangesandmaximizeprofits―tendedtobeignored.Anditwastheunemployedwhowereaccusedoffailingtohonourthesocialcontractbynotfulfillingtheirdutytosocietytowork.Inspiteofgeneralconcernatthescaleoftheunemploymentstatisticswhentheunemployedwereconsideredasindividualstheytendedtoattractscornandthreatsofpunishment.Theircapacitiesandmotivationasworkersandtheirvalueasmembersofsocietybecamesuspect.OfallthemythsoftheWelfareStatestoriesofthework-shyandborrowershavebeentheleastwell-foundedonevidenceyettheyhaveprovedthemostpersistent.TheunemployedwereaccusedofbeingresponsiblefortheirownworklessconditionanddoubtswereexpressedabouttheState’’sobligationeithertoprovidethemwiththesecurityofworkortosupportthemthroughSocialSecurity. Underlyingtheargumentsaboutunemploymentandtheunemployedisabasicdisagreementaboutthenatureandmeaningofworkinsociety.TowhatextentcanorshouldworkberegardedasaservicenotonlyperformedbytheworkerforsocietybutalsomadesecurefortheworkerbytheStateandsupportedifnecessaryAndapartfromcasharetheresocialpressuresandsatisfactionswhichcauseindividualstoseekandkeepwork.sothattheworklessneedworkratherthanjustcash Thebasicdisagreementabouttheessenceofworkrestsonwhetherornot
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
AradiativeforcingisanychangeimposedontheEarththataffecttheplanetaryenergybalance.Radiativeforcingsincludechangesingreenhousegasessuchascarbondioxideandozoneaerosolsintheatmospheresolarirradianceandsurfacereflectivity.Aforcingmayresultfromeitheranaturalorananthropogeniccauseorfrombothasinthecaseofatmosphericaerosolconcentrationswhichcanbealteredeitherbyvolcanicactionortheburningoffossilfuels.Radiativeforcingsaretypicallyspecifiedforthepurposeoftheoreticalglobalclimatesimulations.Incontrastradiativefeedbacksareenvironmentalchangesresultingfromclimatechangesandarecalculatedfromscientificobservation.Radiativefeedbacksincludechangesinsuchphenomenaascloudsatmosphericwatervaporsea-icecoverandsnowcover. Theinterplaybetweenforcingsandfeedbackscanbequitecomplex.Forexampleanincreaseintheconcentrationofatmosphericwatervaporincreasessolarirradiancetherebywarmingtheatmosphereandinturnincreasingevaporationandtheconcentrationofatmosphericwatervapor.Arelatedexampleofthiscomplexinterplayalsoshowstheuncertaintyoffutureclimaticchangesassociatedwithforcingsandfeedbacks.ScientistsareunsurehowthereductionofozonewillultimatelyaffectcloudsandinturntheEarthtemperature.Cloudstrapoutgoingcoolingradiationtherebyprovidingawarminginfluence.Howevertheyalsoreflectincomingsolarradiationandthusprovideacoolinginfluence.CurrentsmeasurementsindicatethattheneteffectofcloudsistocooltheEarth.Howeverscientistsdonotknowhowthebalancemightshiftinthefutureascloudformationanddispersionareaffectedbyozonereduction. Contributingtothisuncertaintyisthecomplexityofthemechanismsatworkintheprocessofozonereduction.Theamountofradiationreachingtheearth’’ssurfaceandtheamountofreradiatedradiationthatistrappedbythegreenhouseeffectinfluencetheEarth’’stemperatureinoppositedirections.Bothmechanismsareaffectedbytheverticaldistributionofozone.Alsotherelativeimportanceofthesetwocompetingmechanismsdependsonthealtitudeatwhichozonechangesoccur.InarecentNASA-sponsoredaircraftstudyoftheAntarcticozoneholechlorinemonoxidewasmeasuredatvaryingaltitudes.Themeasurementssuggestthatchlorineplaysagreaterroleandoxidesofnitrogenalesserrolethanpreviouslythoughtinthedestructionofozoneintheloweratmosphere.Thestudyconcludedthatsimultaneoushigh-resolutionmeasurementsatmanydifferentaltitudesonthescaleof0.1kilometerinverticalextentarenecessarytodiagnosetheoperativemechanisms.Thesefindingshavecalledintoquestionconventionalexplanationsforozonereductionwhichfailtoadequatelyaccountforthenewevidence.NASA=NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration国家航空航天局 Welearnfromthetextthattheburningofpetrol
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
ItissaidthatinEnglanddeathispressinginCanadainevitableandinCaliforniaoptional.Smallwonder.Americans’’lifeexpectancyhasnearlydoubledoverthepastcentury.Failinghipscanbereplacedclinicaldepressioncontrolledcataractsremovedina30-minutesurgicalprocedure.SuchadvancesoffertheagingpopulationaqualityoflifethatwasunimaginablewhenIenteredmedicine50yearsago.Butnotevenagreathealth-caresystemcancuredeath--andourfailuretoconfrontthatrealitynowthreatensthisgreatnessofours. Deathisnormal;wearegeneticallyprogrammedtodisintegrateandperishevenunderidealconditions.Weallunderstandthatatsomelevelyetasmedicalconsumerswetreatdeathasaproblemtobesolved.Shieldedbythird-partypayersfromthecostofourcarewedemandeyed’’thingthatcanpossiblybedoneforusevenifit’’suseless.Themostobviousexampleislate-stagecancercare.Physicians--frustratedbytheirinabilitytocurethediseaseandfearinglossofhopeinthepatient--toooftenofferaggressivetreatmentfarbeyondwhatisscientificallyjustified. In1950theU.S.spent$12.7billiononhealthcare.In2002thecostwillbe$I540billion.Anyonecanseethistrendisunsustainable.Yetfewseemwillingtotrytoreverseit.Somescholarsconcludethatagovernmentwithfiniteresourcesshouldsimplystoppayingformedicalcarethatsustainslifebeyondacertainage--say83orso.FormerColoradogovernorRichardLammhasbeenquotedassayingthattheoldandinfirmhaveadutytodieandgetoutofthewaysothatyoungerhealthierpeoplecanrealizetheirpotential. Iwouldnotgothatfar.Energeticpeoplenowroutinelyworkthroughtheir60sandbeyondandremaindazzlinglyproductive.At78ViacomchairmanSumnerRedstonejokinglyclaimstobe53.SupremeCourtJusticeSandraDayO’’Connorisinher7OsandformersurgeongeneralC.EverettKoopchairsanInternetstart-upinhis80s.Theseleadersarelivingproofthatpreventionworksandthatwecanmanagethehealthproblemsthatcomenaturallywithage.Asamere68-year-oldIwishtoageasproductivelyastheyhave. Yettherearelimitstowhatasocietycanspendinthispursuit.AsaphysicianIknowthemostcostlyamddramaticmeasuresmaybeineffectiveandpainful.IalsoknowthatpeopleinJapanandSwedencountriesthatspendfarlessonmedicalcarehaveachievedlongerhealthierlivesthanwehave.Asanationwemaybeoverfundingthequestforunlikelycureswhileunderfundingresearchonhumblertherapiesthatcouldimprovepeople’’slives. Theauthorusestheexampleofcancerpatientstoshowthat
Thehumannoseisanunderratedtool.Humansareoftenthoughttobeinsensitivesmellerscomparedwithanimals________thisislargelybecause________animalswestandupright.Thismeansthatournosesare________toperceivingthosesmellswhichfloatthroughtheair________themajorityofsmellswhichsticktosurfaces.Infact________weareextremelysensitivetosmells________wedonotgenerallyrealizeit.Ournosesarecapableof________humansmellsevenwhentheseare________tofarbelowonepartinonemillion. Strangelysomepeoplefindthattheycansmellonetypeofflowerbutnotanother________othersaresensitivetothesmellsofbothflowers.Thismaybebecausesomepeopledonothavethegenesnecessarytogenerate________smellreceptorsinthenose.Thesereceptorsarethecellswhichsensesmellsandsend________tothebrain.Howeverithasbeenfoundthatevenpeopleinsensitivetoacertainsmell________cansuddenlybecomesensitivetoitwhen________toitoftenenough. Theexplanationforinsensitivitytosmellseemstobethatthebrainfindsit________tokeepallsmellreceptorsworkingallthetimebutcan________newreceptorsifnecessary.Thismay________explainwhywearenotusuallysensitivetoourownsmells―wesimplydonotneedtobe.Wearenot________oftheusualsmellofourownhousebutwe________newsmellswhenwevisitsomeoneelse’’s.Thebrainfindsitbesttokeepsmellreceptors________forunfamiliarandemergencysignals________thesmellofsmokewhichmightindicatethedangeroffire.
Humanbeingsinalltimesandplacesthinkabouttheirworldandwonderattheirplaceinit.Humansarethoughtfulandcreativepossessedofinsatiablecuriosity.61Furthermorehumanshavetheabilitytomodifytheenvironmentinwhichtheylivethussubjectingallotherlifeformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.ThereforeitisimportanttostudyhumansinalltheirrichnessanddiversityinacalmandsystematicmannerwiththehopethattheknowledgeresultingfromsuchstudiescanleadhumanstoamorehannoniouswayoflivingwiththemselvesandwithallotherlifeformsonthisplanetEarth. Anthropology.derivesfromtheGreekwordsanthroposhumanandlogosthestudyof.Bvitsverynameanthropologyencompassesthestudyofallhumankind. Anthropologyisoneofthesocialsciences.62Socialscienceisthatbranchofintellectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasonedorderlysystematicanddispassionedmannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena. Socialsciencedisciplinesincludegeographyeconomicspoliticalsciencepsychologyandsociology.Eachofthesesocialscienceshasasubfieldorspecializationwhichliesparticularlyclosetoanthropology. Allthesocialsciencesfocusuponthestudyofhumanity.Anthropologyisafield-studyorienteddisciplinewhichmakesextensiveuseofthecomparativemethodinanalysis.63Theemphasisondatagatheredfirst-handcombinedwithacross-culturalperspectivebroughttotheanalysisofculturespastandpresentmakesthisstudyauniqueanddistinctlyimportantsocialscience. Anthropologicalanalysesrestheavilyupontheconceptofculture.SirEdwardTylor’’sformulationoftheconceptofculturewasoneofthegreatintellectualachievementsof19thcenturyscience.64Tylordefinedcultureas...thatcomplexwholewhichincludesbeliefartmoralslawcustomandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.Thisinsightsoprofoundinitssimplicityopenedupanentirelynewwayofperceivingandunderstandinghumanlife.ImplicitwithinTylor’’sdefinitionistheconceptthatcultureislearnedsharedandpatternedbehavior. 65Thustheanthropologicalconceptofcultureliketheconceptofsetinmathematicsisanabstractconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding. Humanbeingsinalltimesandplacesthinkabouttheirworldandwonderattheirplaceinit.Humansarethoughtfulandcreativepossessedofinsatiablecuriosity.61Furthermorehumanshavetheabilitytomodifytheenvironmentinwhichtheylivethussubjectingallotherlifeformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.ThereforeitisimportanttostudyhumansinalltheirrichnessanddiversityinacalmandsystematicmannerwiththehopethattheknowledgeresultingfromsuchstudiescanleadhumanstoamorehannoniouswayoflivingwiththemselvesandwithallotherlifeformsonthisplanetEarth. Anthropology.derivesfromtheGreekwordsanthroposhumanandlogosthestudyof.Bvitsverynameanthropologyencompassesthestudyofallhumankind. Anthropologyisoneofthesocialsciences.62Socialscienceisthatbranchofintellectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasonedorderlysystematicanddispassionedmannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena. Socialsciencedisciplinesincludegeographyeconomicspoliticalsciencepsychologyandsociology.Eachofthesesocialscienceshasasubfieldorspecializationwhichliesparticularlyclosetoanthropology. Allthesocialsciencesfocusuponthestudyofhumanity.Anthropologyisafield-studyorienteddisciplinewhichmakesextensiveuseofthecomparativemethodinanalysis.63Theemphasisondatagatheredfirst-handcombinedwithacross-culturalperspectivebroughttotheanalysisofculturespastandpresentmakesthisstudyauniqueanddistinctlyimportantsocialscience. Anthropologicalanalysesrestheavilyupontheconceptofculture.SirEdwardTylor’’sformulationoftheconceptofculturewasoneofthegreatintellectualachievementsof19thcenturyscience.64Tylordefinedcultureas...thatcomplexwholewhichincludesbeliefartmoralslawcustomandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.Thisinsightsoprofoundinitssimplicityopenedupanentirelynewwayofperceivingandunderstandinghumanlife.ImplicitwithinTylor’’sdefinitionistheconceptthatcultureislearnedsharedandpatternedbehavior. 65Thustheanthropologicalconceptofcultureliketheconceptofsetinmathematicsisanabstractconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding.
AimlessnesshashardlybeentypicalofthepostwarJapanwhoseproductivityandsocialharmonyaretheenvyoftheUnitedStatesandEurope.ButincreasinglytheJapaneseareseeingadeclineofthetraditionalwork-moralvalues.TenyearsagoyoungpeoplewerehardworkingandsawtheirjobsastheirprimaryreasonforbeingbutnowJapanhaslargelyfulfilleditseconomicneedsandyoungpeopledon’’tknowwheretheyshouldgonext. Thecomingofageofthepostwarbabyboomandanentryofwomenintothemale-dominatedjobmarkethavelimitedtheopportunitiesofteen-agerswhoarealreadyquestioningtheheavypersonalsacrificesinvolvedinclimbingJapan’’srigidsocialladdertogoodschoolsandjobs.Inarecentsurveyitwasfoundthatonly24.5percentofJapanesestudentswerefullysatisfiedwithschoollifecomparedwith67.2percentofstudentsintheUnitedStates.InadditionfarmoreJapaneseworkersexpresseddissatisfactionwiththeirjobsthandidtheircounterpartsinthe10othercountriessurveyed. WhileoftenpraisedbyforeignersforitsemphasisonthebasicsJapaneseeducationtendstostresstesttakingandmechanicallearningovercreativityandself-expression.Thosethingsthatdonotshowupinthetestscores--personalityabilitycourageorhumanity--arecompletelyignoredsaysToshikiKaifuchairmanoftherulingLiberalDemocraticParty’’seducationcommittee.Frustrationagainstthiskindofthingleadskidstodropoutandrunwild.LastyearJapanexperienced2125incidentsofschoolviolenceincluding929assaultsonteachers.Amidtheoutcrymanyconservativeleadersareseekingareturntotheprewaremphasisonmoraleducation.LastyearMitsuoSetoyamawhowastheneducationministerraisedeyebrowswhenhearguedthatliberalreformsintroducedbytheAmericanoccupationauthoritiesafterWorldWarⅡhadweakenedtheJapanesemoralityofrespectforparents. ButthatmayhavemoretodowithJapaneselife-styles.InJapansayseducatorYokoMuroit’’sneveraquestionofwhetheryouenjoyyourjobandyourlifebutonlyhowmuchyoucanendure.Witheconomicgrowthhascomecentralizationfully76percentofJapan’’s119millioncitizensliveincitieswherecommunityandtheextendedfamilyhavebeenabandonedinfavorofisolatedtwo-generationhouseholds.UrbanJapanesehavelongenduredlengthycommutestravelstoandfromworkandcrowdedlivingconditionsbutastheoldgroupandfamilyvaluesweakenthediscomfortisbeginningtotell.InthepastdecadetheJapanesedivorceratewhilestillwellbelowthatoftheUnitedStateshasincreasedbymorethan50percentandsuicideshaveincreasedbynearlyone-quarter. ThechangeinJapaneselife-styleisrevealedinthefactthat__________.
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